The Role of G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 6 Regulation in Inflammation and Pain.

The G protein-coupled receptor kinase 6 is associated with inflammation and pathological pain. Impairment of GRK6 expression was described in chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and this was shown to be accompanied by an imbalance of downstream signaling pathways. Here, we discuss novel aspects of GRK6 interaction and its impact upon hyperalgesia and inflammatory processes. In this review, we compile important findings concerning GRK6 regulation for a better pathophysiological understanding of the intracellular interaction in the context of inflammation and show clinical implications-for example, the identification of possible therapy goals in the treatment of chronic inflammatory hyperalgesia.

Methylation in HT22 cells and primary hippocampal neurons with and without isoflurane exposurewhether isoflurane causes.

BACKGROUND: Epigenetic modulation may play a role in anesthesia related phenotypes, such as cognitive impairment or memory loss, especially with exposure to anesthetics in the vulnerable phase of brain development. While isoflurane anesthesia can evoke neuroinflammation and neuroapoptosis in young animals, we investigated in a permanent hippocampal cell line (HT22) and in primary hippocampal neurons in an a priori in vitro analysis, whether isoflurane exposure 1) evokes DNA methylation changes in genes involved in apoptosis and inflammation, and 2) results observed in a permanent hippocampal cell line are comparable to primary hippocampal neurons. In case of methylation changes in specific genes, (3) mRNA analysis was performed to assess possible effects on gene expression. METHODS: HT22 cells and primary mouse hippocampal neurons were exposed to 3% isoflurane for 4 h and DNA (each 6 single experiments) and RNA (3 single independent experiments) were extracted. Methylation analysis (EpiTect Methyl II PCR Array Systems, Qiagen) included the methylation status of 66 genes involved in apoptosis, cytokine production, inflammatory response, and autoimmunity. Quantitative Real-Time PCR was performed using the Quantitect SYBR Green Kit on a Step One Plus. RESULTS: Methylation status was markedly different between immortalized HT22 cells and cultured primary hippocampal neurons without isoflurane exposure. Of 66 genes investigated, 29 were methylated to a significantly greater degree in HT22 cells compared to primary hippocampal neurons. In cultured primary hippocampal neurons, in contrast, there was a greater methylation in several genes involved in inflammation, accompanied with significant downregulation of C-X-C motif chemokine 12 with isoflurane exposure (p = 0.023). CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate marked differences in gene methylation between HT22 cells and cultured primary hippocampal neurons without isoflurane exposure, with a greater methylation of several genes involved in inflammation upon isoflurane exposure and significant downregulation of Cxcl12 mRNA expression in primary hippocampal neurons. Accordingly, further investigations of anesthesia related DNA methylation should be performed with special consideration being given to the choice of cells targeted for such investigations.

Correction to: Methylation in HT22 cells and primary hippocampal neurons with and without isoflurane exposure.

Following publication of the original article [1], it was brought to our attention of an error in the article title.

Characterization of the G protein-coupled receptor kinase 6 promoter reveals a functional CREB binding site.

BACKGROUND: G protein-coupled receptor kinase 6 (GRK6) is part of the G protein-coupled receptor kinase family, whose members act as key regulators of seven-transmembrane receptor signalling. GRK6 seems to play a role in regulation of inflammatory processes, but mechanisms of transcriptional regulation of GRK6 expression in inflammatory cell lines have not been characterized. Protein kinase C (PKC) signalling is also involved in inflammatory regulation and an impact of PKC activation on GRK6 protein expression was described previously. Thus, the aim of this study was to 1) characterize the GRK6 promoter, and 2) investigate a potential influence of PKC on GRK6 expression. METHODS: Five deletion constructs of the GRK6 promoter were cloned. After transient transfection into a human T cell line, promoter activity was assessed using luciferase reporter gene assays. Putative transcription factor binding sites were identified, mutated, and binding was investigated using electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA). Following stimulation with a PKC activator, GRK6 expression on mRNA and protein levels was assessed by reverse transcriptase qPCR and Western blots. RESULTS: Investigation of the GRK6 promoter revealed a putative cAMP responsive element (CRE), whose mutation led to decreased promoter activity (p = 0.0006). Functionality of the CRE binding protein (CREB) binding site was verified in EMSA blots. Stimulation with a PKC activator resulted in decreased GRK6 promoter activity (p = 0.0027), mRNA (p = 0.04) and protein expression. CONCLUSION: We characterized the human GRK6 promoter and identified promoter activity to be influenced by a CREB binding site. PKC might be one determinant contributing to altered GRK6 expression.