Genomic characterization of metastatic patterns from prospective clinical sequencing of 25,000 patients.

Metastatic progression is the main cause of death in cancer patients, whereas the underlying genomic mechanisms driving metastasis remain largely unknown. Here, we assembled MSK-MET, a pan-cancer cohort of over 25,000 patients with metastatic diseases. By analyzing genomic and clinical data from this cohort, we identified associations between genomic alterations and patterns of metastatic dissemination across 50 tumor types. We found that chromosomal instability is strongly correlated with metastatic burden in some tumor types, including prostate adenocarcinoma, lung adenocarcinoma, and HR+/HER2+ breast ductal carcinoma, but not in others, including colorectal cancer and high-grade serous ovarian cancer, where copy-number alteration patterns may be established early in tumor development. We also identified somatic alterations associated with metastatic burden and specific target organs. Our data offer a valuable resource for the investigation of the biological basis for metastatic spread and highlight the complex role of chromosomal instability in cancer progression.

ATRX guards against aberrant differentiation in mesenchymal progenitor cells.

Alterations in the tumor suppressor ATRX are recurrently observed in mesenchymal neoplasms. ATRX has multiple epigenetic functions including heterochromatin formation and maintenance and regulation of transcription through modulation of chromatin accessibility. Here, we show in murine mesenchymal progenitor cells (MPCs) that Atrx deficiency aberrantly activated mesenchymal differentiation programs. This includes adipogenic pathways where ATRX loss induced expression of adipogenic transcription factors and enhanced adipogenic differentiation in response to differentiation stimuli. These changes are linked to loss of heterochromatin near mesenchymal lineage genes together with increased chromatin accessibility and gains of active chromatin marks. We additionally observed depletion of H3K9me3 at transposable elements, which are derepressed including near mesenchymal genes where they could serve as regulatory elements. Finally, we demonstrated that loss of ATRX in a mesenchymal malignancy, undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma, results in similar epigenetic disruption and de-repression of transposable elements. Together, our results reveal a role for ATRX in maintaining epigenetic states and transcriptional repression in mesenchymal progenitors and tumor cells and in preventing aberrant differentiation in the progenitor context.

Vimseltinib versus placebo for tenosynovial giant cell tumour (MOTION): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial.

BACKGROUND: Tenosynovial giant cell tumour (TGCT) is a locally aggressive neoplasm for which few systemic treatment options exist. This study evaluated the efficacy and safety of vimseltinib, an oral, switch-control, CSF1R inhibitor, in patients with symptomatic TGCT not amenable to surgery. METHODS: MOTION is a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial done in 35 specialised hospitals in 13 countries. Eligible patients were adults (aged ≥18 years) with a histologically confirmed diagnosis of TGCT for which surgical resection could potentially worsen functional limitation or cause severe morbidity. Patients were randomly assigned (2:1) with interactive response technology to vimseltinib (30 mg orally twice weekly) or placebo, administrated in 28-day cycles for 24 weeks. Patients and site personnel were masked to treatment assignment until week 25, unless progressive disease was confirmed earlier. The primary endpoint was objective response rate by independent radiological review using Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors, version 1.1 (RECIST) at week 25 in the intention-to-treat population. Safety was assessed in all patients who received the study drug. The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05059262, and enrolment is complete. FINDINGS: Between Jan 21, 2022, and Feb 21, 2023, 123 patients were randomly assigned (83 to vimseltinib and 40 to placebo). 73 (59%) patients were female and 50 (41%) were male. Nine (11%) of 83 patients assigned to vimseltinib and five (13%) of 40 patients assigned to placebo discontinued treatment before week 25; one patient in the placebo group did not receive any study drug. Objective response rate per RECIST was 40% (33 of 83 patients) in the vimseltinib group vs 0% (none of 40) in the placebo group (difference 40% [95% CI 29-51]; p<0·0001). Most treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were grade 1 or 2; the only grade 3 or 4 TEAE that occurred in more than 5% of patients receiving vimseltinib was increased blood creatine phosphokinase (eight [10%] of 83). One patient in the vimseltinib group had a treatment-related serious TEAE of subcutaneous abscess. No evidence of cholestatic hepatotoxicity or drug-induced liver injury was noted. INTERPRETATION: Vimseltinib produced a significant objective response rate and clinically meaningful functional and symptomatic improvement in patients with TGCT, providing an effective treatment option for these patients. FUNDING: Deciphera Pharmaceuticals.

Afamitresgene autoleucel for advanced synovial sarcoma and myxoid round cell liposarcoma (SPEARHEAD-1): an international, open-label, phase 2 trial.

BACKGROUND: Afamitresgene autoleucel (afami-cel) showed acceptable safety and promising efficacy in a phase 1 trial (NCT03132922). The aim of this study was to further evaluate the efficacy of afami-cel for the treatment of patients with HLA-A*02 and MAGE-A4-expressing advanced synovial sarcoma or myxoid round cell liposarcoma. METHODS: SPEARHEAD-1 was an open-label, non-randomised, phase 2 trial done across 23 sites in Canada, the USA, and Europe. The trial included three cohorts, of which the main investigational cohort (cohort 1) is reported here. Cohort 1 included patients with HLA-A*02, aged 16-75 years, with metastatic or unresectable synovial sarcoma or myxoid round cell liposarcoma (confirmed by cytogenetics) expressing MAGE-A4, and who had received at least one previous line of anthracycline-containing or ifosfamide-containing chemotherapy. Patients received a single intravenous dose of afami-cel (transduced dose range 1·0 × 109-10·0 × 109 T cells) after lymphodepletion. The primary endpoint was overall response rate in cohort 1, assessed by a masked independent review committee using Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumours (version 1.1) in the modified intention-to-treat population (all patients who received afami-cel). Adverse events, including those of special interest (cytokine release syndrome, prolonged cytopenia, and neurotoxicity), were monitored and are reported for the modified intention-to-treat population. This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04044768; recruitment is closed and follow-up is ongoing for cohorts 1 and 2, and recruitment is open for cohort 3. FINDINGS: Between Dec 17, 2019, and July 27, 2021, 52 patients with cytogenetically confirmed synovial sarcoma (n=44) and myxoid round cell liposarcoma (n=8) were enrolled and received afami-cel in cohort 1. Patients were heavily pre-treated (median three [IQR two to four] previous lines of systemic therapy). Median follow-up time was 32·6 months (IQR 29·4-36·1). Overall response rate was 37% (19 of 52; 95% CI 24-51) overall, 39% (17 of 44; 24-55) for patients with synovial sarcoma, and 25% (two of eight; 3-65) for patients with myxoid round cell liposarcoma. Cytokine release syndrome occurred in 37 (71%) of 52 of patients (one grade 3 event). Cytopenias were the most common grade 3 or worse adverse events (lymphopenia in 50 [96%], neutropenia 44 [85%], leukopenia 42 [81%] of 52 patients). No treatment-related deaths occurred. INTERPRETATION: Afami-cel treatment resulted in durable responses in heavily pre-treated patients with HLA-A*02 and MAGE-A4-expressing synovial sarcoma. This study shows that T-cell receptor therapy can be used to effectively target solid tumours and provides rationale to expand this approach to other solid malignancies. FUNDING: Adaptimmune.

Genomic profiling of pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma reveals a genomic signature distinct from that of embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma.

Pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma (PRMS) is a rare and highly aggressive sarcoma, occurring mostly in the deep soft tissues of middle-aged adults and showing a variable degree of skeletal muscle differentiation. The diagnosis is challenging as pathologic features overlap with embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma (ERMS), malignant Triton tumor, and other pleomorphic sarcomas. As recurrent genetic alterations underlying PRMS have not been described to date, ancillary molecular diagnostic testing is not useful in subclassification. Herein, we perform genomic profiling of a well-characterized cohort of 14 PRMS, compared to a control group of 23 ERMS and other pleomorphic sarcomas (undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma and pleomorphic liposarcoma) using clinically validated DNA-targeted Next generation sequencing (NGS) panels (MSK-IMPACT). The PRMS cohort included eight males and six females, with a median age of 53 years (range 31-76 years). Despite similar tumor mutation burdens, the genomic landscape of PRMS, with a high frequency of TP53 (79%) and RB1 (43%) alterations, stood in stark contrast to ERMS, with 4% and 0%, respectively. CDKN2A deletions were more common in PRMS (43%), compared to ERMS (13%). In contrast, ERMS harbored somatic driver mutations in the RAS pathway and loss of function mutations in BCOR, which were absent in PRMS. Copy number variations in PRMS showed multiple chromosomal arm-level changes, most commonly gains of chr17p and chr22q and loss of chr6q. Notably, gain of chr8, commonly seen in ERMS (61%) was conspicuously absent in PRMS. The genomic profiles of other pleomorphic sarcomas were overall analogous to PRMS, showing shared alterations in TP53, RB1, and CDKN2A. Overall survival and progression-free survival of PRMS were significantly worse (p < 0.0005) than that of ERMS. Our findings revealed that the molecular landscape of PRMS aligns with other adult pleomorphic sarcomas and is distinct from that of ERMS. Thus, NGS assays may be applied in select challenging cases toward a refined classification. Finally, our data corroborate the inclusion of PRMS in the therapeutic bracket of pleomorphic sarcomas, given that their clinical outcomes are comparable.

Clinicopathologic and molecular correlates to neoadjuvant chemotherapy-induced pathologic response in breast angiosarcoma.

Both primary and secondary breast angiosarcoma (AS) are characterized by multifocal presentation and aggressive behavior. Despite multimodality therapy, local and distant relapse rates remain high. Therefore, neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) is employed to improve the R0 resection rates and survival, but its benefits remain controversial. Herein, we investigate pathologic and molecular correlates to NACT-induced histologic response in a group of 29 breast AS, 4 primary and 25 radiation-associated (RA). The two NACT regimens applied were anthracycline- and non-anthracycline-based. The pathologic response grade was defined as: I: ≤ 50%, II: 51%-90%, III: 91%-99%, and IV: 100%. An additional 45 primary AS and 102 RA-AS treated by surgery alone were included for survival comparison. The genomic landscape was analyzed in a subset of cases and compared to a cohort of AS without NACT on a paired tumor-normal targeted DNA NGS platform. All patients were females, with a median age of 31 years in primary AS and 68 years in RA-AS. All surgical margins were negative in NACT group. The NACT response was evenly divided between poor (Grades I-II; n = 15) and good responders (Grades III-IV; n = 14). Mitotic count >10/mm2 was the only factor inversely associated with pathologic response. By targeted NGS, all 10 post-NACT RA-AS demonstrated MYC amplification, while both primary AS harbored KDR mutations. TMB or other genomic alterations did not correlate with pathologic response. All four patients with Grade IV response remained free of disease. The good responders had a significantly better disease-specific survival (p = 0.04). There was no survival difference with NACT status or the NACT regimens applied. However, NACT patients with MYC-amplified tumors showed better disease-free survival (p = 0.04) compared to MYC-amplified patients without NACT. The overall survival of NACT group correlated with size >10 cm (p = 0.02), pathologic response (p = 0.04), and multifocality (p = 0.01) by univariate, while only size >10 cm (p = 0.03) remained significant by multivariate analysis.

Real-World Patient Experience of Pexidartinib for Tenosynovial Giant-Cell Tumor.

BACKGROUND: Pexidartinib (Turalio) is the only systemic therapy approved by the FDA for the treatment of adult patients with symptomatic tenosynovial giant-cell tumor (TGCT) associated with severe morbidity or functional limitations, and not amenable to improvement with surgery. This study assessed patient-reported treatment experiences and symptom improvement among patients receiving pexidartinib. METHODS: A cross-sectional, web-based survey collected data on demographics, disease history, pexidartinib dosing, and symptoms before and after pexidartinib use. RESULTS: Of 288 patients enrolled in the Turalio REMS program in May 2021, 83 completed the survey: mean age was 44.2 years, 62.7% were female, and most common tumor sites were in knee (61%) and ankle (12%). Mean initial dose was 622 mg/day: 29 patients reported reduction from initial dose and 8 had dose reduction after titrating up to a higher dose. At the time of survey completion, median time on pexidartinib was 6.0 months; 22 (26.5%) patients discontinued pexidartinib due to physician suggestion, abnormal laboratory results, side effect, or symptom improvement. Compared with before pexidartinib initiation, most patients reported improvement in overall TGCT symptom (78.3%) and physical function (77.2%) during pexidartinib treatment. Significant improvement was reported during pexidartinib treatment in worst stiffness numeric rating scale (NRS) (3.0 vs. 6.2, P < .05) and worst pain NRS (2.7 vs. 5.7, P < .05). CONCLUSION: Findings from this cross-sectional survey confirmed the benefit of pexidartinib in improving symptoms and functional outcomes among patients with symptomatic TGCTs from the patients' perspective. Future research is warranted to examine the long-term benefit and risk of pexidartinib.

Pegylated Liposomal Doxorubicin Causes Kidney-limited Thrombotic Microangiopathy.

A definite causal link between pegylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) and kidney-limited thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) remains unestablished. Here, we report 2 cases of PLD-induced kidney-limited TMA, 1 in a patient with myxofibrosarcoma and the other in a patient with liposarcoma. The 2 patients received a high cumulative dose of PLD, and both presented with a rise in serum creatinine and proteinuria. Kidney biopsy revealed TMA with chronic mesangiolysis and capillary wall double contouring. Neither patient had concomitant exposure to TMA-causing drugs, such as gemcitabine, anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents, or mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors. The work-up for secondary causes of TMA was negative in both patients. The cessation of PLD therapy led to improvement or stabilization in serum creatinine and proteinuria in both patients. These 2 cases provide a clear causal link between PLD and kidney-limited TMA. The high cumulative dose of PLD increases the risk of kidney TMA. Early recognition of PLD-induced kidney TMA can lead to timely cessation of PLD therapy and potentially preserve kidney function.

Distinct genomic landscapes in radiation-associated angiosarcoma compared with other radiation-associated sarcoma histologies.

MYC amplifications have been frequently detected in radiation (RT)-associated angiosarcomas (ASs) by low-resolution molecular methods. However, large-scale next-generation sequencing (NGS) studies to investigate the genomic landscape of RT-AS are scarce, particularly compared with other RT-associated sarcomas. We performed a detailed comparative genomic investigation of RT-AS versus other RT-associated histotypes, as well as sporadic sarcomas with similar histologies. Our institutional targeted DNA-NGS assay database was searched for RT-associated sarcomas. Clinical outcome data, pathologic diagnosis, and the types and frequencies of genomic alterations, including single nucleotide variants (SNVs) and copy number alterations (CNAs), were analyzed. The cohort consisted of 82 patients, 68 (83%) females and 14 (17%) males, aged 37-88 (mean 64) years. Forty-four RT-ASs (38 from breast) and 38 RT sarcomas of other histologies, including 12 malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (RT-MPNSTs), 14 undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcomas (RT-UPSs), and 12 osteosarcomas (RT-OSs), were included. Median time intervals from radiation to initial diagnosis in RT-AS (8.0 years) were significantly lower than those in RT-MPNST and RT-UPS (12.5 and 18.5 years), respectively. Each RT-sarcoma histotype harbored distinct mutations and CNAs. RT-associated AS had more frequent MYC, FLT4, CRKL, HRAS, and KMT2D alterations than sporadic AS (enriched in TP53, KDR, ATM, ATRX), whereas the mutational landscapes of MPNST, UPS, and OS were similar in both RT and non-RT settings. CDKN2A/B deletions and TP53 alterations were infrequent in RT-AS compared with other RT sarcomas. Among RT sarcomas, RT-AS harbored the lowest fraction of genome altered (FGA), while RT-MPNST showed the highest FGA. RT-AS had the lowest insertion:SNV and deletion:SNV ratios, while RT-UPS had the highest. The predominant mutational signatures were associated with errors in DNA repair and replication. In conclusion, RT-AS has a distinct genomic landscape compared with other RT sarcomas and sporadic AS. Potential molecular targets for precision medicine may be histotype-dependent. © 2023 The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

The MOTION study: a randomized, phase III study of vimseltinib for the treatment of tenosynovial giant cell tumor.

Tenosynovial giant cell tumor (TGCT) is a rare, locally aggressive neoplasm that occurs in the synovium of joints, bursae, or tendon sheaths and is caused by upregulation of the CSF1 gene. Vimseltinib is an oral switch-control tyrosine kinase inhibitor specifically designed to selectively and potently inhibit the CSF1 receptor. Here, we describe the rationale and design for the phase III MOTION trial (NCT05059262), which aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of vimseltinib in participants with TGCT not amenable to surgical resection. In part 1, participants are randomized to receive vimseltinib 30 mg twice weekly or matching placebo for ≤24 weeks. Part 2 is a long-term treatment phase in which participants will receive open-label vimseltinib.

Tenosynovial giant cell tumor (or TGCT) is a rare, noncancerous tumor that grows in the soft tissue lining the spaces of joints and bursae (fluid-filled sacs that work to reduce friction in the joints). These tumors are linked to increased levels of a protein called CSF1. While this condition is typically treated with surgery, some patients may not be candidates for surgical removal of the tumor due to factors such as location or complexity of the tumor; therefore, drug treatments are needed to help these patients. Vimseltinib is an investigational oral drug specifically designed to inhibit the receptor to which the CSF1 protein binds. In this article, we describe the rationale and design for a phase III clinical trial that will test how well vimseltinib works in participants with TGCT who are not candidates for surgery. In the first part of the study, participants are randomly assigned to receive vimseltinib 30 mg twice weekly or a matching placebo (inactive substance) for up to 24 weeks. This first part is blinded, so participants will not know if they are receiving vimseltinib or the placebo. The second part of the study is a long-term treatment phase in which all participants will receive vimseltinib (unblinded). Clinical Trial Registration: NCT05059262 (ClinicalTrials.gov).

High-Grade Sarcomas with Myogenic Differentiation Harboring Hotspot PDGFRB Mutations.

PDGFRB-activating mutations have been reported in pediatric myofibroma and myofibromatosis. However, recurrent gain-of-function PDGFRB mutations have not been documented in sarcomas with myogenic differentiation. Driven by occasional sarcomas harboring PDGFRB mutations, we investigated their prevalence and clinicopathologic and genomic features in a large cohort of sarcomas. An institutional targeted DNA next-generation sequencing database was searched for sarcomas with myogenic differentiation harboring hotspot PDGFRB gene alterations. Among 3300 patients with sarcomas, 21 (0.6%) patients were identified (17 women, 4 men) with an age range of 35 to 88 years. The site distribution included 13 gynecologic tract (12 uteri, 1 vagina), 4 bone and soft tissue, and 4 viscera. All except 1 were high grade. Most patients were diagnosed as sarcomas with myogenic differentiation based on partial staining for 1 or more muscle markers, whereas 6 were labeled as leiomyosarcoma (LMS). Most tumors showed monomorphic spindle morphology, with either heterogeneous features of myofibroblastic and smooth muscle differentiation or an undifferentiated phenotype. Hormone receptors were negative in all uterine cases. PDGFRB immunostaining in all cases tested was strong and diffuse, whereas PDGFRA was negative/focal. The most frequent PDGFRB mutations were exon 12 (43%), exon 14 (N666K/S/T) (38%), and exon 18 (D850Y/H/V or insertion/deletion) (19%). The most frequent co-existing genetic alterations (26% to 37%) occurred in CDKN2A/B, TP53, TERT, and MED12. Moreover, PDGFRB-mutant sarcomas had an overall distinct genomic landscape compared with both uterine and soft tissue LMS control groups. These tumors were associated with a highly aggressive clinical course, with frequent distant metastases (81%) and death (76%), regardless of anatomic location, and worse overall survival compared with the 2 LMS control groups. This is the first study documenting recurrent hotspot PDGFRB alterations in high-grade sarcomas, which show a predilection for uterine location and myogenic differentiation that fall short of the diagnostic criteria for LMS. Further studies are needed to investigate the therapeutic potential of kinase inhibitors in this group of tumors.

Expanding the Molecular Diversity of CIC-Rearranged Sarcomas With Novel and Very Rare Partners.

Capicua transcriptional repressor (CIC)-rearranged sarcoma represents a distinct pathologic entity and constitutes the second most prevalent category of undifferentiated round cell sarcomas (URCSs) after Ewing sarcoma. The 2 most common translocations are t(4;19) and t(10;19), resulting in CIC fusions with either DUX4 and DUX4L paralog, respectively; however, other rare variant fusions have also been reported. In this study, we expand the molecular spectrum of CIC-gene partners, reporting on 5 cases of URCSs showing CIC fusions with AXL, CITED1, SYK, and LEUTX by targeted RNA or DNA sequencing. There were 4 female patients and 1 male patient with a wide age range (12-70 years; median, 36 years). Four cases occurred in the deep soft tissues (lower extremity, 3; neck, 1) and 1 case in the central nervous system (midbrain/thalamus). All cases showed similar histologic findings within the spectrum of URCSs. Immunohistochemistry, showed variable positivity for ETV4 in 4 of the 4 cases and positive results for ERG in 3 of the 4 cases and for WT1 in 1 of the 4 cases. CD31 showed positivity in 2 of the 3 cases, including one coexpressing ERG. Unsupervised clustering of methylation profiles by T-distributed stochastic neighborhood embedding performed in 4 cases showed that all clustered tightly together and along the CIC sarcoma methylation class. RNA-sequencing data showed consistent upregulation of ETV1 and ETV4 mRNA in all cases examined, at similar levels to CIC::DUX4 URCSs. Our study expands the molecular diversity of CIC-rearranged URCSs to include novel and rare partners, providing morphologic, immunohistochemical, gene expression, and methylation evidence supporting their classification within the family of tumors harboring the more common DUX4/DUX4L partner genes.

Undifferentiated and Dedifferentiated Metastatic Melanomas Masquerading as Soft Tissue Sarcomas: Mutational Signature Analysis and Immunotherapy Response.

The distinction between undifferentiated melanoma (UM) or dedifferentiated melanoma (DM) from undifferentiated or unclassifiable sarcoma can be difficult and requires the careful correlation of clinical, pathologic, and genomic findings. In this study, we examined the utility of mutational signatures to identify patients with UM/DM with particular attention as to whether this distinction matters for treatment because the survival of patients with metastatic melanoma has dramatically improved with immunologic therapy, whereas durable responses are less frequent in sarcomas. We identified 19 cases of UM/DM that were initially reported as unclassified or undifferentiated malignant neoplasm or sarcoma and submitted for targeted next-generation sequencing analysis. These cases were confirmed as UM/DM by harboring melanoma driver mutations, UV signature, and high tumor mutation burden. One case of DM showed melanoma in situ. Meanwhile, 18 cases represented metastatic UM/DM. Eleven patients had a prior history of melanoma. Thirteen of 19 (68%) of the tumors were immunohistochemically completely negative for 4 melanocytic markers (S100, SOX10, HMB45, and MELAN-A). All cases harbored a dominant UV signature. Frequent driver mutations involved BRAF (26%), NRAS (32%), and NF1 (42%). In contrast, the control cohort of undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcomas (UPS) of deep soft tissue exhibited a dominant aging signature in 46.6% (7/15) without evidence of UV signature. The median tumor mutation burden for DM/UM vs UPS was 31.5 vs 7.0 mutations/Mb (P < .001). A favorable response to immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy was observed in 66.6% (12/18) of patients with UM/DM. Eight patients exhibited a complete response and were alive with no evidence of disease at the last follow-up (median 45.5 months). Our findings support the usefulness of the UV signature in discriminating DM/UM vs UPS. Furthermore, we present evidence suggesting that patients with DM/UM and UV signatures can benefit from immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy.

New Molecular Insights, and the Role of Systemic Therapies and Collaboration for Treatment of Epithelioid Hemangioendothelioma (EHE).

OPINION STATEMENT: Epithelioid hemangioendothelioma (EHE) is an ultra-rare, translocated vascular sarcoma. EHE can have different clinical presentations from indolent to rapidly evolving cases, behaving as a high-grade sarcoma. Serosal effusion and systemic symptoms such as fever and severe pain are known as adverse prognostic factors; however, outcome prediction at disease onset remains a major challenge. In spite of its rarity, an international collaborative effort is in place with the support of patient advocates to increase the knowledge of EHE biology, develop new treatment options, and improve patient access to new active medications. Currently, systemic therapies are indicated only for patients suffering from progressive and/or symptomatic disease and in patients with a high risk of organ dysfunction. Standard systemic agents available so far for treatment of sarcomas, and in particular anthracycline-based chemotherapy, have marginal activity in EHE. On this background, EHE patients should be always considered for clinical study when available. The MEK inhibitor trametinib has been recently investigated prospectively in advanced EHE showing some activity, but the publication of the full dataset is still awaited to better interpret the results. Besides, there are data on response to antiangiogenics such as sorafenib and bevacizumab and, from retrospective studies, interferon, thalidomide, and sirolimus. Unfortunately, none of these agents is formally approved for EHE patients and access to treatments varies greatly between countries causing a huge disparity in patient care from one country to another.

Pexidartinib Provides Modest Pain Relief in Patients With Tenosynovial Giant Cell Tumor: Results From ENLIVEN.

BACKGROUND: The double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 study of orally administered PLX3397 in patients with pigmented villonodular synovitis or giant cell tumor of the tendon sheath (ENLIVEN) showed that pexidartinib provides a robust objective tumor response in adults with tenosynovial giant cell tumors (TGCT) not amenable to improvement with surgery. Based on these results, in 2019, pexidartinib received accelerated approval in the United States in this population as a breakthrough therapy under an orphan drug designation. However, the ability of pexidartinib to relieve pain in ENLIVEN was not fully detailed, and the relationship between pain relief and objective tumor response was not described. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: (1) What level of pain relief was achieved by pexidartinib treatment in ENLIVEN? (2) How was pain relief related to objective tumor responses? (3) How durable was pain relief? METHODS: The current study included planned primary and exploratory assessments of patient-assessed worst pain at the site of the tumor in the ENLIVEN trial. ENLIVEN was a phase 3 randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial in which adults with TGCT not amenable to improvement with surgery received pexidartinib or placebo for 24 weeks, after which eligible patients could receive open-label pexidartinib. Of 174 patients assessed for eligibility, 121 were randomized (50% [60] to placebo, 50% [61] to pexidartinib), and 120 were given either placebo or pexidartinib (59 received placebo and 61 received pexidartinib) and were included in an intent-to-treat analysis. Fifty-nine percent (71 of 120) of the overall treated population was female, and 88% (106 of 120) were White. Mean age was 45 ± 13 years. Tumors were mostly in the lower extremities (92% [110 of 120]), most commonly in the knee (61% [73 of 120]) and ankle (18% [21 of 120]). As a secondary outcome, patients scored worst pain at the site of the tumor in the past 24 hours on an 11-point numeric rating scale (NRS). The primary definition of a pain response was a decrease of at least 30% in the weekly mean worst-pain NRS score and increase of less than 30% in narcotic analgesic use between baseline and week 25. Planned exploratory assessments of pain included the frequency of a pain response using alternative thresholds, including a decrease in worst-pain NRS score of 50% or more and a decrease of at least 2 points (minimum clinically important difference [MCID]), the magnitude of pain reduction between baseline and week 25, correlation between worst-pain NRS score and tumor shrinkage by RECIST 1.1 criteria, and the durability of the pain response during the open-label extension. Pain responses during the randomized portion of the trial were compared according to intention-to-treat analysis, with a one-sided threshold of p < 0.025 to reduce the risk of false-positive results. Pain assessment was complete for 59% (35 of 59) of patients in the placebo group and 54% (33 of 61) of patients in the pexidartinib group. Demographic and disease characteristics did not differ between the two treatment groups. RESULTS: A difference in the primary assessment of a pain response was not detected between pexidartinib and placebo (response percentage 31% [19 of 61] [95% CI 21% to 44%] versus 15% [9 of 59] [95% CI 8% to 27%]; one-sided p = 0.03). In the exploratory analyses, pexidartinib provided a modest improvement in pain (response percentage 26% [16 of 61] [95% CI 17% to 38%] versus 10% [6 of 59] [95% CI 5% to 20%]; one-sided p = 0.02 using the 50% threshold and 31% [19 of 61] [95% CI 21% to 44%] versus 14% [8 of 59] [95% CI 7% to 25%]; one-sided p = 0.02 using the MCID threshold). The least-squares mean change in the weekly mean worst-pain NRS score between baseline and week 25 was larger in patients treated with pexidartinib than placebo (-2.5 [95% CI -3.0 to -1.9] versus -0.3 [95% CI -0.9 to 0.3]; p < 0.001), although the mean difference between the two groups (-2.2 [95% CI -3.0 to -1.4]) was just over the MCID. Improvement in the weekly mean worst-pain NRS score correlated with the reduction in tumor size (r = 0.44; p < 0.001) and tumor volume score (r = 0.61; p < 0.001). For patients in the open-label extension, the change in the worst-pain NRS score from baseline was similar to the change at the end of the randomized portion and just above the MCID (mean -2.7 ± 2.2 after 25 weeks and -3.3 ± 1.7 after 50 weeks of receiving pexidartinib). CONCLUSION: Based on the current study, a modest reduction in pain, just larger than the MCID, may be an added benefit of pexidartinib in these patients, although the findings are insufficient to justify the routine use of pexidartinib for pain relief. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II, therapeutic study.

Clinicopathologic and survival correlates of embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma driven by RAS/RAF mutations.

Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma (ERMS) is the most common subtype of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS). Among RMS subtypes, ERMS is associated with a favorable outcome with an overall survival of 70% at 5 years for localized disease. The molecular profile of ERMS is heterogeneous, including mostly point mutations in various genes. Therapeutic strategies have remained relatively consistent irrespective of the molecular abnormalities. In this study, we focus on a homogeneous RAS/RAF mutated ERMS subset and correlate with clinicopathologic findings. Twenty-six cases (16 males and 10 females) were identified from screening 98 ERMS, either by targeted DNA sequencing (MSK-IMPACT) or by Sanger sequencing. Fourteen (54%) cases had NRAS mutations, 6 (23%) had KRAS mutations, 5 (19%) had HRAS mutations, and 1 case (4%) had BRAF mutation. Median age at diagnosis was 8 years (range 1-70) with two-thirds occurring in the children. Tumor sites varied with H&N and GU sites accounting for 62% of cases. RAS isoform hot spot mutations predominated: NRAS p.Q61K (57%), KRAS p.G12D (67%), and HRAS (codons 12, 14, and 61). Additional genetic abnormalities were identified in 85% of the RAS-mutated cases. At last follow-up, 29% of patients died of disease and 23% were alive with disease. The 3-year and 5-year survival rates were 75% and 61% respectively. In conclusion, RAS mutations occur in 27% of ERMS, with NRAS mutations encompassing half of the cases. Overall RAS-mutant RMS does not correlate with age or site, but most tumors show an undifferentiated and spindle cell morphology.

FGFR2::TACC2 fusion as a novel KIT-independent mechanism of targeted therapy failure in a multidrug-resistant gastrointestinal stromal tumor.

Genetic alterations in FGF/FGFR pathway are infrequent in gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), with rare cases of quadruple wildtype GISTs harboring FGFR1 gene fusions and mutations. Additionally, FGF/FGFR overexpression was shown to promote drug resistance to kinase inhibitors in GISTs. However, FGFR gene fusions have not been directly implicated as a mechanism of drug resistance in GISTs. Herein, we report a patient presenting with a primary small bowel spindle cell GIST and concurrent peritoneal and liver metastases displaying an imatinib-sensitive KIT exon 11 in-frame deletion. After an initial 9-month benefit to imatinib, the patient experienced intraabdominal peritoneal recurrence owing to secondary KIT exon 13 missense mutation and FGFR4 amplification. Despite several additional rounds of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI), the patient's disease progressed after 2 years and presented with multiple peritoneal and liver metastases, including one pericolonic mass harboring secondary KIT exon 18 missense mutation, and a concurrent transverse colonic mass with a FGFR2::TACC2 fusion and AKT2 amplification. All tumors, including primary and recurrent masses, harbored an MGA c.7272 T > G (p.Y2424*) nonsense mutation and CDKN2A/CDKN2B/MTAP deletions. The transcolonic mass showed elevated mitotic count (18/10 HPF), as well as significant decrease in CD117 and DOG1 expression, in contrast to all the other resistant nodules that displayed diffuse and strong CD117 and DOG1 immunostaining. The FGFR2::TACC2 fusion resulted from a 742 kb intrachromosomal inversion at the chr10q26.3 locus, leading to a fusion between exons 1-17 of FGFR2 and exons 7-17 TACC2, which preserves the extracellular and protein tyrosine kinase domains of FGFR2. We present the first report of a multidrug-resistant GIST patient who developed an FGFR2 gene fusion as a secondary genetic event to the selective pressure of various TKIs. This case also highlights the heterogeneous escape mechanisms to targeted therapy across various tumor nodules, spanning from both KIT-dependent and KIT-independent off-target activation pathways.

Myxoid pleomorphic liposarcoma is distinguished from other liposarcomas by widespread loss of heterozygosity and significantly worse overall survival: a genomic and clinicopathologic study.

Myxoid pleomorphic liposarcoma (MPLPS) is a recently described and extremely rare subtype of liposarcoma with a predilection for the mediastinum. However, the genomic features of MPLPS remain poorly understood. We performed comprehensive genomic profiling of MPLPS in comparison with pleomorphic liposarcoma (PLPS) and myxoid/round cell liposarcoma (MRLPS). Of the 8 patients with MPLPS, 5 were female and 3 were male, with a median age of 32 years old (range 10-68). All except one were located in the mediastinum, with invasion of surrounding anatomic structures, including chest wall, pleura, spine, and large vessels. All cases showed an admixture of morphologies reminiscent of PLPS and MRLPS, including myxoid areas with plexiform vasculature admixed with uni- and/or multivacuolated pleomorphic lipoblasts. Less common features included well-differentiated liposarcoma-like areas, and in one case fascicular spindle cell sarcoma reminiscent of dedifferentiated LPS. Clinically, 4 experienced local recurrence, 4 had distant metastases and 5 died of disease. Compared to PLPS and MRLPS, patients with MPLPS had worse overall and progression-free survival. Recurrent TP53 mutations were present in all 8 MPLPS cases. In contrast, in PLPS, which also showed recurrent TP53 mutations (83%), RB1 and ATRX losses were more common. MRLPS was highly enriched in TERT promoter mutations (88%) and PI3K/AKT pathway mutations. Copy number profiling in MPLPS revealed multiple chromosomal gains with recurrent amplifications of chromosomes 1, 19 and 21. Importantly, allele-specific copy number analysis revealed widespread loss of heterozygosity (80% of the genome on average) in MPLPS, but not in PLPS or MRLPS. Our findings revealed genome-wide loss of heterozygosity co-existing with TP53 mutations as a characteristic genomic signature distinct from other liposarcoma subtypes, which supports the current classification of MPLPS as a stand-alone pathologic entity. These results further expand the clinicopathologic features of MPLPS, including older age, extra-mediastinal sites, and a highly aggressive outcome.

Comprehensive genomic profiling of EWSR1/FUS::CREB translocation-associated tumors uncovers prognostically significant recurrent genetic alterations and methylation-transcriptional correlates.

To elucidate the mechanisms underlying the divergent clinicopathologic spectrum of EWSR1/FUS::CREB translocation-associated tumors, we performed a comprehensive genomic analysis of fusion transcript variants, recurrent genetic alterations (mutations, copy number alterations), gene expression, and methylation profiles across a large cohort of tumor types. The distribution of the EWSR1/FUS fusion partners-ATF1, CREB1, and CREM-and exon involvement was significantly different across different tumor types. Our targeted sequencing showed that secondary genetic events are associated with tumor type rather than fusion type. Of the 39 cases that underwent targeted NGS testing, 18 (46%) had secondary OncoKB mutations or copy number alterations (29 secondary genetic events in total), of which 15 (52%) were recurrent. Secondary recurrent, but mutually exclusive, TERT promoter and CDKN2A mutations were identified only in clear cell sarcoma (CCS) and associated with worse overall survival. CDKN2A/B homozygous deletions were recurrent in angiomatoid fibrous histiocytoma (AFH) and restricted to metastatic cases. mRNA upregulation of MITF, CDH19, PARVB, and PFKP was found in CCS, compared to AFH, and correlated with a hypomethylated profile. In contrast, S100A4 and XAF1 were differentially upregulated and hypomethylated in AFH but not CCS. Unsupervised clustering of methylation profiles revealed that CREB family translocation-associated tumors form neighboring but tight, distinct clusters. A sarcoma methylation classifier was able to accurately match 100% of CCS cases to the correct methylation class; however, it was suboptimal when applied to other histologies. In conclusion, our comprehensive genomic profiling of EWSR1/FUS::CREB translocation-associated tumors uncovered mostly histotype, rather than fusion-type associated correlations in transcript variants, prognostically significant secondary genetic alterations, and gene expression and methylation patterns.

The genetic landscape of SMARCB1 alterations in SMARCB1-deficient spectrum of mesenchymal neoplasms.

SMARCB1 biallelic inactivation resulting in SMARCB1/INI1 deficiency drives a wide range of malignancies, including many mesenchymal tumors. However, the specific types of SMARCB1 alterations and spectrum of cooperating mutations among various types of sarcomas has not been well investigated. We profiled SMARCB1 genetic alterations by targeted DNA sequencing and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) in a large cohort of 118 soft tissue and bone tumors, including SMARCB1-deficient sarcomas (78, 66%): epithelioid sarcomas, epithelioid peripheral nerve sheath tumors, poorly differentiated chordomas, malignant rhabdoid tumors, and soft tissue myoepithelial tumors, as well as non-SMARCB1-deficient sarcomas (40, 34%) with various SMARCB1 genetic alterations (mutations, copy number alterations). SMARCB1 loss by immunohistochemistry was present in 94% SMARCB1 pathogenic cases. By combined sequencing and FISH assays, 80% of SMARCB1-deficient tumors harbored homozygous (biallelic) SMARCB1 loss, while 14% demonstrated heterozygous SMARCB1 loss-of-function (LOF) alterations, and 6% showed no demonstrable SMARCB1 alterations. FISH and sequencing were concordant in the ability to detect SMARCB1 loss in 48% of cases. Epithelioid sarcomas most commonly (75%) harbored homozygous deletions, while a subset showed focal intragenic deletions or LOF mutations (nonsense, frameshift). In contrast, most soft tissue myoepithelial tumors (83%) harbored SMARCB1 nonsense point mutations without copy number losses. Additionally, clinically significant, recurrent co-occurring genetic events were rare regardless of histotype. By sequencing, extended 22q copy number loss in genes flanking the SMARCB1 locus (22q11.23) occurred in one-third of epithelioid sarcomas and the majority of poorly differentiated chordomas. Poorly differentiated chordomas and soft tissue myoepithelial tumors showed significantly worse overall and disease-free survival compared to epithelioid sarcomas. Overall, SMARCB1 LOF alterations predominate and account for SMARCB1 protein loss in most cases: majority being biallelic but a subset were heterozygous. In contrast, SMARCB1 alterations of uncertain significance can be seen in diverse sarcomas types and does not indicate a SMARCB1-deficient entity.