Examining strain diversity and phylogeography in relation to an unusual epidemic pattern of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in a long-term refugee camp in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: A recent longitudinal study in the Dadaab refugee camp near the Kenya-Somalia border identified unusual biannual respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) epidemics. We characterized the genetic variability of the associated RSV strains to determine if viral diversity contributed to this unusual epidemic pattern. METHODS: For 336 RSV positive specimens identified from 2007 through 2011 through facility-based surveillance of respiratory illnesses in the camp, 324 (96.4%) were sub-typed by PCR methods, into 201 (62.0%) group A, 118 (36.4%) group B and 5 (1.5%) group A-B co-infections. Partial sequencing of the G gene (coding for the attachment protein) was completed for 290 (89.5%) specimens. These specimens were phylogenetically analyzed together with 1154 contemporaneous strains from 22 countries. RESULTS: Of the 6 epidemic peaks recorded in the camp over the period, the first and last were predominantly made up of group B strains, while the 4 in between were largely composed of group A strains in a consecutive series of minor followed by major epidemics. The Dadaab group A strains belonged to either genotype GA2 (180, 98.9%) or GA5 (2, < 1%) while all group B strains (108, 100%) belonged to BA genotype. In sequential epidemics, strains within these genotypes appeared to be of two types: those continuing from the preceding epidemics and those newly introduced. Genotype diversity was similar in minor and major epidemics. CONCLUSION: RSV strain diversity in Dadaab was similar to contemporaneous diversity worldwide, suggested both between-epidemic persistence and new introductions, and was unrelated to the unusual epidemic pattern.

Epidemiology, seasonality, and burden of influenza and influenza-like illness in urban and rural Kenya, 2007-2010.

BACKGROUND: The epidemiology and burden of influenza remain poorly defined in sub-Saharan Africa. Since 2005, the Kenya Medical Research Institute and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-Kenya have conducted population-based infectious disease surveillance in Kibera, an urban informal settlement in Nairobi, and in Lwak, a rural community in western Kenya. METHODS: Nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swab specimens were obtained from patients who attended the study clinic and had acute lower respiratory tract (LRT) illness. Specimens were tested for influenza virus by real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. We adjusted the incidence of influenza-associated acute LRT illness to account for patients with acute LRT illness who attended the clinic but were not sampled. RESULTS: From March 2007 through February 2010, 4140 cases of acute LRT illness were evaluated in Kibera, and specimens were collected from 1197 (27%); 319 (27%) were positive for influenza virus. In Lwak, there were 6733 cases of acute LRT illness, and specimens were collected from 1641 (24%); 359 (22%) were positive for influenza virus. The crude and adjusted rates of medically attended influenza-associated acute LRT illness were 6.9 and 13.6 cases per 1000 person-years, respectively, in Kibera, and 5.6 and 23.0 cases per 1000 person-years, respectively, in Lwak. In both sites, rates of influenza-associated acute LRT illness were highest among children <2 years old and lowest among adults ≥50 years old. CONCLUSION: In Kenya, the incidence of influenza-associated acute LRT illness was high in both rural and urban settings, particularly among the most vulnerable age groups.

Human brucellosis in Baringo County, Kenya: Evaluating the diagnostic kits used and identifying infecting Brucella species.

Human brucellosis diagnosis has been a challenge in Brucella-endemic areas. In Kenya, diagnosis is usually carried out using Febrile Brucella Antigen agglutination test (FBAT) whose performance is not well documented. This paper reports on the sensitivity and specificity of the FBAT used for brucellosis diagnosis on blood samples/serum collected in three healthcare facilities in Baringo County, Kenya, and on Brucella species present in the study area. The FBAT test results at the hospitals were used to guide patient management. Patients who visited the hospital's laboratory with a clinician's request for brucellosis testing also filled a questionnaire to assess knowledge and attitudes associated with transmission of the disease in the study area. The remaining serum samples were tested again using FBAT and Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) within a month of blood collection at the University Nairobi Laboratory. The two rapid tests were then compared, with respect to brucellosis diagnostic sensitivity and specificity. To identify infecting Brucella species, a proportion 43% (71/166) of the blood clots were analyzed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific primers for B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. ovis and B. suis. Out of 166 serum samples tested, 26.5% (44/166) were positive using FBAT and 10.2% (17/166) positive using RBPT. The sensitivity and specificity of FBAT compared to RBPT was 76.47% and 71.19%, respectively while the positive and negative predictive values were 29.55% and 96.72%, respectively. The FBAT showed higher positivity then RBPT. The difference in sensitivity and specificity of FBAT and RBPTs was relatively low. The high FBAT positivity rate would be indication of misdiagnosis; this would lead to incorrect treatment. Brucella abortus was detected from 9.9% (7/71) of the blood clots tested; no other Brucella species were detected. Thus human brucellosis, in Baringo was mainly caused by B. abortus.

Epidemiology of respiratory viral infections in two long-term refugee camps in Kenya, 2007-2010.

BACKGROUND: Refugees are at risk for poor outcomes from acute respiratory infections (ARI) because of overcrowding, suboptimal living conditions, and malnutrition. We implemented surveillance for respiratory viruses in Dadaab and Kakuma refugee camps in Kenya to characterize their role in the epidemiology of ARI among refugees. METHODS: From 1 September 2007 through 31 August 2010, we obtained nasopharyngeal (NP) and oropharyngeal (OP) specimens from patients with influenza-like illness (ILI) or severe acute respiratory infections (SARI) and tested them by RT-PCR for adenovirus (AdV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), human metapneumovirus (hMPV), parainfluenza viruses (PIV), and influenza A and B viruses. Definitions for ILI and SARI were adapted from those of the World Health Organization. Proportions of cases associated with viral aetiology were calculated by camp and by clinical case definition. In addition, for children < 5 years only, crude estimates of rates due to SARI per 1000 were obtained. RESULTS: We tested specimens from 1815 ILI and 4449 SARI patients (median age = 1 year). Proportion positive for virus were AdV, 21.7%; RSV, 12.5%; hMPV, 5.7%; PIV, 9.4%; influenza A, 9.7%; and influenza B, 2.6%; 49.8% were positive for at least one virus. The annual rate of SARI hospitalisation for 2007-2010 was 57 per 1000 children per year. Virus-positive hospitalisation rates were 14 for AdV; 9 for RSV; 6 for PIV; 4 for hMPV; 5 for influenza A; and 1 for influenza B. The rate of SARI hospitalisation was highest in children < 1 year old (156 per 1000 child-years). The ratio of rates for children < 1 year and 1 to < 5 years old was 3.7:1 for AdV, 5.5:1 for RSV, 4.4:1 for PIV, 5.1:1 for hMPV, 3.2:1 for influenza A, and 2.2:1 for influenza B. While SARI hospitalisation rates peaked from November to February in Dadaab, no distinct seasonality was observed in Kakuma. CONCLUSIONS: Respiratory viral infections, particularly RSV and AdV, were associated with high rates of illness and make up a substantial portion of respiratory infection in these two refugee settings.

SOCS-1 mimetics protect mice against lethal poxvirus infection: identification of a novel endogenous antiviral system.

The suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS-1) protein modulates cytokine signaling by binding to and inhibiting the function of Janus kinases (JAKs), ErbB, and other tyrosine kinases. We have developed a small tyrosine kinase inhibitor peptide (Tkip) that binds to the autophosphorylation site of tyrosine kinases and inhibits activation of STAT transcription factors. We have also shown that a peptide corresponding to the kinase-inhibitory region of SOCS-1, SOCS1-KIR, similarly interacts with the activation loop of JAK2 and blocks STAT activation. Poxviruses activate cellular tyrosine kinases, such as ErbB-1 and JAK2, in the infection of cells. We used the pathogenesis of vaccinia virus in C57BL/6 mice to determine the ability of the SOCS-1 mimetics to protect mice against lethal vaccinia virus infection. Injection of mice intraperitoneally with Tkip or SOCS1-KIR containing a palmitate for cell penetration, before and at the time of intranasal challenge with 2 x 10(6) PFU of vaccinia virus, resulted in complete protection at 100 microg. Initiation of treatment 1 day postinfection resulted in 80% survival. Administration of SOCS-1 mimetics by the oral route also protected mice against lethal effects of the virus. Both SOCS1-KIR and Tkip inhibited vaccinia virus transcription and replication at early and possibly later stages of infection. Vaccinia virus-induced phosphorylation of ErbB-1 and JAK2 was inhibited by the mimetics. Protected mice mounted a strong humoral and cellular response to vaccinia virus. The use of SOCS-1 mimetics in the treatment of poxvirus infections reveals an endogenous regulatory system that previously was not known to have an antiviral function.

Identification and characterization of influenza A viruses in selected domestic animals in Kenya, 2010-2012.

BACKGROUND: Influenza A virus subtypes in non-human hosts have not been characterized in Kenya. We carried out influenza surveillance in selected domestic animals and compared the virus isolates with isolates obtained in humans during the same period. METHODS: We collected nasal swabs from pigs, dogs and cats; oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs from poultry; and blood samples from all animals between 2010 and 2012. A standardized questionnaire was administered to farmers and traders. Swabs were tested for influenza A by rtRT-PCR, virus isolation and subtyping was done on all positive swabs. All sera were screened for influenza A antibodies by ELISA, and positives were evaluated by hemagglutination inhibition (HI). Full genome sequencing was done on four selected pig virus isolates. RESULTS: Among 3,798 sera tested by ELISA, influenza A seroprevalence was highest in pigs (15.9%; 172/1084), 1.2% (3/258) in ducks, 1.4% (1/72) in cats 0.6% (3/467) in dogs, 0.1% (2/1894) in chicken and 0% in geese and turkeys. HI testing of ELISA-positive pig sera showed that 71.5% had positive titers to A/California/04/2009(H1N1). Among 6,289 swabs tested by rRT-PCR, influenza A prevalence was highest in ducks [1.2%; 5/423] and 0% in cats and turkeys. Eight virus isolates were obtained from pig nasal swabs collected in 2011 and were determined to be A(H1N1)pdm09 on subtyping. On phylogenetic analysis, four hemagglutinin segments from pig isolates clustered together and were closely associated with human influenza viruses that circulated in Kenya in 2011. CONCLUSION: Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 isolated in pigs was genetically similar to contemporary human pandemic influenza virus isolates. This suggest that the virus was likely transmitted from humans to pigs, became established and circulated in Kenyan pig populations during the study period. Minimal influenza A prevalence was observed in the other animals studied.

Which influenza vaccine formulation should be used in Kenya? A comparison of influenza isolates from Kenya to vaccine strains, 2007-2013.

INTRODUCTION: Every year the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends which influenza virus strains should be included in a northern hemisphere (NH) and a southern hemisphere (SH) influenza vaccine. To determine the best vaccine formulation for Kenya, we compared influenza viruses collected in Kenya from April 2007 to May 2013 to WHO vaccine strains. METHODS: We collected nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal (NP/OP) specimens from patients with respiratory illness, tested them for influenza, isolated influenza viruses from a proportion of positive specimens, tested the isolates for antigenic relatedness to vaccine strains, and determined the percentage match between circulating viruses and SH or NH influenza vaccine composition and schedule. RESULTS: During the six years, 7.336 of the 60,072 (12.2%) NP/OP specimens we collected were positive for influenza: 30,167 specimens were collected during the SH seasons and 3717 (12.3%) were positive for influenza; 2903 (78.1%) influenza A, 902 (24.2%) influenza B, and 88 (2.4%) influenza A and B positive specimens. We collected 30,131 specimens during the NH seasons and 3978 (13.2%) were positive for influenza; 3181 (80.0%) influenza A, 851 (21.4%) influenza B, and 54 (1.4%) influenza A and B positive specimens. Overall, 362/460 (78.7%) isolates from the SH seasons and 316/338 (93.5%) isolates from the NH seasons were matched to the SH and the NH vaccine strains, respectively (p<0.001). Overall, 53.6% and 46.4% SH and NH vaccines, respectively, matched circulating strains in terms of vaccine strains and timing. CONCLUSION: In six years of surveillance in Kenya, influenza circulated at nearly equal levels during the SH and the NH influenza seasons. Circulating viruses were matched to vaccine strains. The vaccine match decreased when both vaccine strains and timing were taken into consideration. Either vaccine formulation could be suitable for use in Kenya but the optimal timing for influenza vaccination needs to be determined.

Serologic Evidence of the Geographic Distribution of Bacterial Zoonotic Agents in Kenya, 2007.

Diseases of zoonotic origin contribute to the burden of febrile illnesses in developing countries. We evaluated serologic evidence of exposure to Bacillus anthracis, Brucella spp., spotted fever group rickettsioses (SFGR), and typhus group rickettsioses (TGR) from samples of persons aged 15-64 years collected during a nationwide human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) serosurvey conducted in 2007 in Kenya. The seropositivity observed for pathogens was B. anthracis 11.3%, Brucella spp. 3.0%, SFGR 23.3%, and TGR 0.6%. On univariate analysis, seropositivity for each pathogen was significantly associated with the following risk factors: B. anthracis with province of residence; Brucella spp. with sex, education level, and wealth; SFGR with age, education level, wealth, and province of residence; and TGR with province of residence. On multivariate analysis, seropositivity remained significantly associated with wealth and province for B. anthracis; with sex and age for Brucella spp; and with sex, education level, and province of residence for SFGR whereas TGR had no significance. High IgG seropositivity to these zoonotic pathogens (especially, B. anthracis and SFGR) suggests substantial exposure. These pathogens should be considered in the differential diagnosis of febrile illness in Kenya.

Uptake and Effectiveness of a Trivalent Inactivated Influenza Vaccine in Children in Urban and Rural Kenya, 2010 to 2012.

BACKGROUND: In Africa, recent surveillance has demonstrated a high burden of influenza, but influenza vaccine is rarely used. In Kenya, a country with a tropical climate, influenza has been shown to circulate year-round, like in other tropical countries. METHODS: During 3 months in 2010 and 2011 and 2 months in 2012, the Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-Kenya offered free injectable trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine to children 6 months to 10 years old in 2 resource-poor communities in Kenya-Kibera and Lwak (total population ~50,000). We conducted a case-control study to evaluate vaccine effectiveness (VE) in preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza associated with influenza-like illness and acute lower respiratory illness. RESULTS: Of the approximately 18,000 eligible children, 41%, 48% and 51% received at least 1 vaccine in 2010, 2011 and 2012, respectively; 30%, 36% and 38% were fully vaccinated. VE among fully vaccinated children was 57% [95% confidence interval (CI): 29% to 74%] during a 6-month follow-up period, 39% (95% CI: 17% to 56%) during a 9-month follow-up period and 48% (95% CI: 32% to 61%) during a 12-month follow-up period. For the 12-month follow-up period, VE was statistically significant in children <5 years and in children 5 to <10 years old (50% and 46%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: In Kenya, parents of nearly half of the eligible children <10 years old chose to get their children vaccinated with a free influenza vaccine. During a 12-month follow-up period, the vaccine was moderately effective in preventing medically attended influenza-associated respiratory illness.

The Unrecognized Burden of Influenza in Young Kenyan Children, 2008-2012.

Influenza-associated disease burden among children in tropical sub-Saharan Africa is not well established, particularly outside of the 2009 pandemic period. We estimated the burden of influenza in children aged 0-4 years through population-based surveillance for influenza-like illness (ILI) and acute lower respiratory tract illness (ALRI). Household members meeting ILI or ALRI case definitions were referred to health facilities for evaluation and collection of nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs for influenza testing by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Estimates were adjusted for health-seeking behavior and those with ILI and ALRI who were not tested. During 2008-2012, there were 9,652 person-years of surveillance among children aged 0-4 years. The average adjusted rate of influenza-associated hospitalization was 4.3 (95% CI 3.0-6.0) per 1,000 person-years in children aged 0-4 years. Hospitalization rates were highest in the 0-5 month and 6-23 month age groups, at 7.6 (95% CI 3.2-18.2) and 8.4 (95% CI 5.4-13.0) per 1,000 person-years, respectively. The average adjusted rate of influenza-associated medically attended (inpatient or outpatient) ALRI in children aged 0-4 years was 17.4 (95% CI 14.2-19.7) per 1,000 person-years. Few children who had severe laboratory-confirmed influenza were clinically diagnosed with influenza by the treating clinician in the inpatient (0/33, 0%) or outpatient (1/109, 0.9%) settings. Influenza-associated hospitalization rates from 2008-2012 were 5-10 times higher than contemporaneous U.S. estimates. Many children with danger signs were not hospitalized; thus, influenza-associated severe disease rates in Kenyan children are likely higher than hospital-based estimates suggest.

Results from the first six years of national sentinel surveillance for influenza in Kenya, July 2007-June 2013.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have shown that influenza is associated with significant disease burden in many countries in the tropics, but until recently national surveillance for influenza was not conducted in most countries in Africa. METHODS: In 2007, the Kenyan Ministry of Health with technical support from the CDC-Kenya established a national sentinel surveillance system for influenza. At 11 hospitals, for every hospitalized patient with severe acute respiratory illness (SARI), and for the first three outpatients with influenza-like illness (ILI) per day, we collected both nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs. Beginning in 2008, we conducted in-hospital follow-up for SARI patients to determine outcome. Specimens were tested by real time RT-PCR for influenza A and B. Influenza A-positive specimens were subtyped for H1, H3, H5, and (beginning in May 2009) A(H1N1)pdm09. RESULTS: From July 1, 2007 through June 30, 2013, we collected specimens from 24,762 SARI and 14,013 ILI patients. For SARI and ILI case-patients, the median ages were 12 months and 16 months, respectively, and 44% and 47% were female. In all, 2,378 (9.6%) SARI cases and 2,041 (14.6%) ILI cases were positive for influenza viruses. Most influenza-associated SARI cases (58.6%) were in children <2 years old. Of all influenza-positive specimens, 78% were influenza A, 21% were influenza B, and 1% were influenza A/B coinfections. Influenza circulated in every month. In four of the six years influenza activity peaked during July-November. Of 9,419 SARI patients, 2.7% died; the median length of hospitalization was 4 days. CONCLUSIONS: During six years of surveillance in Kenya, influenza was associated with nearly 10 percent of hospitalized SARI cases and one-sixth of outpatient ILI cases. Most influenza-associated SARI and ILI cases were in children <2 years old; interventions to reduce the burden of influenza, such as vaccine, could consider young children as a priority group.

Detection of influenza A virus in live bird markets in Kenya, 2009-2011.

BACKGROUND: Surveillance for influenza viruses within live bird markets (LBMs) has been recognized as an effective tool for detecting circulating avian influenza viruses (AIVs). In Sub-Saharan Africa, limited data exist on AIVs in animal hosts, and in Kenya the presence of influenza virus in animal hosts has not been described. OBJECTIVES: This surveillance project aimed to detect influenza A virus in poultry traded in five LBMs in Kenya. METHODS: We visited each market monthly and collected oropharyngeal and cloacal specimens from poultry and environmental specimens for virological testing for influenza A by real time RT-PCR. On each visit, we collected information on the number and types of birds in each market, health status of the birds, and market practices. RESULTS: During March 24, 2009-February 28, 2011, we collected 5221 cloacal and oropharyngeal swabs. Of the 5199 (99·6%) specimens tested, influenza A virus was detected in 42 (0·8%), including 35/4166 (0·8%) specimens from chickens, 3/381 (0·8%) from turkeys, and 4/335 (1·2%) from geese. None of the 317 duck specimens were positive. Influenza was more commonly detected in oropharyngeal [33 (1·3%)] than in cloacal [9 (0·4%)] specimens. None of the 485 environmental specimens were positive. Virus was detected in all five markets during most (14/22) of the months. Ducks and geese were kept longer at the market (median 30 days) than chickens (median 2days). CONCLUSIONS: Influenza A was detected in a small percentage of poultry traded in LBMs in Kenya. Efforts should be made to promote practices that could limit the maintenance and transmission of AIVs in LBMs.

The kinase inhibitory region of SOCS-1 is sufficient to inhibit T-helper 17 and other immune functions in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis.

Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) negatively regulate the immune response, primarily by interfering with the JAK/STAT pathway. We have developed a small peptide corresponding to the kinase inhibitory region (KIR) sequence of SOCS-1, SOCS1-KIR, which inhibits kinase activity by binding to the activation loop of tyrosine kinases such as JAK2 and TYK2. Treatment of SJL/J mice with SOCS1-KIR beginning 12 days post-immunization with myelin basic protein (MBP) resulted in minimal symptoms of EAE, while most control treated mice developed paraplegia. SOCS1-KIR treatment suppressed interleukin-17A (IL-17A) production by MBP-specific lymphocytes, as well as MBP-induced lymphocyte proliferation. When treated with IL-23, a key cytokine in the terminal differentiation of IL-17-producing cells, MBP-sensitized cells produced IL-17A and IFNγ; SOCS1-KIR was able to inhibit the production of these cytokines. SOCS1-KIR also blocked IL-23 and IL-17A activation of STAT3. There is a deficiency of SOCS-1 and SOCS-3 mRNA expression in CD4(+) T cells that infiltrate the CNS, reflecting a deficiency in regulation. Consistent with therapeutic efficacy, SOCS1-KIR reversed the cellular infiltration of the CNS that is associated with EAE. We have shown here that a SOCS-1 like effect can be obtained with a small functional region of the SOCS-1 protein that is easily produced.

Viral shedding in patients infected with pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus in Kenya, 2009.

BACKGROUND: Understanding shedding patterns of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) (pH1N1) can inform recommendations about infection control measures. We evaluated the duration of pH1N1 virus shedding in patients in Nairobi, Kenya. METHODS: Nasopharyngeal (NP) and oropharyngeal (OP) specimens were collected from consenting laboratory-confirmed pH1N1 cases every 2 days during October 14-November 25, 2009, and tested at the Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention-Kenya by real time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). A subset of rRT-PCR-positive samples was cultured. RESULTS: Of 285 NP/OP specimens from patients with acute respiratory illness, 140 (49%) tested positive for pH1N1 by rRT-PCR; 106 (76%) patients consented and were enrolled. The median age was 6 years (Range: 4 months-41 years); only two patients, both asthmatic, received oseltamivir. The median duration of pH1N1 detection after illness onset was 8 days (95% CI: 7-10 days) for rRT-PCR and 3 days (Range: 0-13 days) for viral isolation. Viable pH1N1 virus was isolated from 132/162 (81%) of rRT-PCR-positive specimens, which included 118/125 (94%) rRT-PCR-positive specimens collected on day 0-7 after symptoms onset. Viral RNA was detectable in 18 (17%) and virus isolated in 7/18 (39%) of specimens collected from patients after all their symptoms had resolved. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort, pH1N1 was detected by rRT-PCR for a median of 8 days. There was a strong correlation between rRT-PCR results and virus isolation in the first week of illness. In some patients, pH1N1 virus was detectable after all their symptoms had resolved.

Comparison of nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs for the diagnosis of eight respiratory viruses by real-time reverse transcription-PCR assays.

BACKGROUND: Many acute respiratory illness surveillance systems collect and test nasopharyngeal (NP) and/or oropharyngeal (OP) swab specimens, yet there are few studies assessing the relative measures of performance for NP versus OP specimens. METHODS: We collected paired NP and OP swabs separately from pediatric and adult patients with influenza-like illness or severe acute respiratory illness at two respiratory surveillance sites in Kenya. The specimens were tested for eight respiratory viruses by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Positivity for a specific virus was defined as detection of viral nucleic acid in either swab. RESULTS: Of 2,331 paired NP/OP specimens, 1,402 (60.1%) were positive for at least one virus, and 393 (16.9%) were positive for more than one virus. Overall, OP swabs were significantly more sensitive than NP swabs for adenovirus (72.4% vs. 57.6%, p<0.01) and 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus (91.2% vs. 70.4%, p<0.01). NP specimens were more sensitive for influenza B virus (83.3% vs. 61.5%, p = 0.02), parainfluenza virus 2 (85.7%, vs. 39.3%, p<0.01), and parainfluenza virus 3 (83.9% vs. 67.4%, p<0.01). The two methods did not differ significantly for human metapneumovirus, influenza A (H3N2) virus, parainfluenza virus 1, or respiratory syncytial virus. CONCLUSIONS: The sensitivities were variable among the eight viruses tested; neither specimen was consistently more effective than the other. For respiratory disease surveillance programs using qRT-PCR that aim to maximize sensitivity for a large number of viruses, collecting combined NP and OP specimens would be the most effective approach.

Both the suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS-1) kinase inhibitory region and SOCS-1 mimetic bind to JAK2 autophosphorylation site: implications for the development of a SOCS-1 antagonist.

Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)-1 protein modulates signaling by IFN-gamma by binding to the autophosphorylation site of JAK2 and by targeting bound JAK2 to the proteosome for degradation. We have developed a small tyrosine kinase inhibitor peptide (Tkip) that is a SOCS-1 mimetic. Tkip is compared in this study with the kinase inhibitory region (KIR) of SOCS-1 for JAK2 recognition, inhibition of kinase activity, and regulation of IFN-gamma-induced biological activity. Tkip and a peptide corresponding to the KIR of SOCS-1, ((53))DTHFRTFRSHSDYRRI((68)) (SOCS1-KIR), both bound similarly to the autophosphorylation site of JAK2, JAK2(1001-1013). The peptides also bound to JAK2 peptide phosphorylated at Tyr(1007), pJAK2(1001-1013). Dose-response competitions suggest that Tkip and SOCS1-KIR similarly recognize the autophosphorylation site of JAK2, but probably not precisely the same way. Although Tkip inhibited JAK2 autophosphorylation as well as IFN-gamma-induced STAT1-alpha phosphorylation, SOCS1-KIR, like SOCS-1, did not inhibit JAK2 autophosphorylation but inhibited STAT1-alpha activation. Both Tkip and SOCS1-KIR inhibited IFN-gamma activation of Raw 264.7 murine macrophages and inhibited Ag-specific splenocyte proliferation. The fact that SOCS1-KIR binds to pJAK2(1001-1013) suggests that the JAK2 peptide could function as an antagonist of SOCS-1. Thus, pJAK2(1001-1013) enhanced suboptimal IFN-gamma activity, blocked SOCS-1-induced inhibition of STAT3 phosphorylation in IL-6-treated cells, enhanced IFN-gamma activation site promoter activity, and enhanced Ag-specific proliferation. Furthermore, SOCS-1 competed with SOCS1-KIR for pJAK2(1001-1013). Thus, the KIR region of SOCS-1 binds directly to the autophosphorylation site of JAK2 and a peptide corresponding to this site can function as an antagonist of SOCS-1.

The gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) mimetic peptide IFN-gamma (95-133) prevents encephalomyocarditis virus infection both in tissue culture and in mice.

We have demonstrated previously that the C-terminal gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) mimetic peptide consisting of residues 95 to 133 [IFN-gamma(95-133)], which contains the crucial IFN-gamma nuclear localization sequence (NLS), has antiviral activity in tissue culture. Here we evaluate the efficacy of this peptide and its derivatives first in vitro and then in an animal model of lethal viral infection with the encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus. Deletion of the NLS region from the IFN-gamma mimetic peptide IFN-gamma(95-133) resulted in loss of antiviral activity. However, the NLS region does not have antiviral activity in itself. Replacing the NLS region of IFN-gamma(95-133) with the NLS region of the simian virus 40 large T antigen retains the antiviral activity in tissue culture. IFN-gamma(95-133) prevented EMC virus-induced lethality in mice in a dose-dependent manner compared to controls. Mice treated with IFN-gamma(95-133) had no or low EMC virus titers in their internal organs, whereas control mice had consistently high viral titers, especially in the heart tissues. Injection of B8R protein, which is encoded by poxviruses as a defense mechanism to neutralize host IFN-gamma, did not inhibit IFN-gamma(95-133) protection against a lethal dose of EMC virus, whereas mice treated with rat IFN-gamma were not protected. The data presented here show that the IFN-gamma mimetic peptide IFN-gamma(95-133) prevents EMC virus infection in vivo and in vitro and may have potential against other lethal viruses, such as the smallpox virus, which encodes the B8R protein.