RORα is a critical checkpoint for T cell and ILC2 commitment in the embryonic thymus.

Type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) contribute to immune homeostasis, protective immunity and tissue repair. Here we demonstrate that functional ILC2 cells can arise in the embryonic thymus from shared T cell precursors, preceding the emergence of CD4+CD8+ (double-positive) T cells. Thymic ILC2 cells migrated to mucosal tissues, with colonization of the intestinal lamina propria. Expression of the transcription factor RORα repressed T cell development while promoting ILC2 development in the thymus. From RNA-seq, assay for transposase-accessible chromatin sequencing (ATAC-seq) and chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) data, we propose a revised transcriptional circuit to explain the co-development of T cells and ILC2 cells from common progenitors in the thymus. When Notch signaling is present, BCL11B dampens Nfil3 and Id2 expression, permitting E protein-directed T cell commitment. However, concomitant expression of RORα overrides the repression of Nfil3 and Id2 repression, allowing ID2 to repress E proteins and promote ILC2 differentiation. Thus, we demonstrate that RORα expression represents a critical checkpoint at the bifurcation of the T cell and ILC2 lineages in the embryonic thymus.

The Deubiquitinase OTULIN Is an Essential Negative Regulator of Inflammation and Autoimmunity.

Methionine-1 (M1)-linked ubiquitin chains regulate the activity of NF-κB, immune homeostasis, and responses to infection. The importance of negative regulators of M1-linked chains in vivo remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the M1-specific deubiquitinase OTULIN is essential for preventing TNF-associated systemic inflammation in humans and mice. A homozygous hypomorphic mutation in human OTULIN causes a potentially fatal autoinflammatory condition termed OTULIN-related autoinflammatory syndrome (ORAS). Four independent OTULIN mouse models reveal that OTULIN deficiency in immune cells results in cell-type-specific effects, ranging from over-production of inflammatory cytokines and autoimmunity due to accumulation of M1-linked polyubiquitin and spontaneous NF-κB activation in myeloid cells to downregulation of M1-polyubiquitin signaling by degradation of LUBAC in B and T cells. Remarkably, treatment with anti-TNF neutralizing antibodies ameliorates inflammation in ORAS patients and rescues mouse phenotypes. Hence, OTULIN is critical for restraining life-threatening spontaneous inflammation and maintaining immune homeostasis.

Polychromic Reporter Mice Reveal Unappreciated Innate Lymphoid Cell Progenitor Heterogeneity and Elusive ILC3 Progenitors in Bone Marrow.

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) play strategic roles in tissue homeostasis and immunity. ILCs arise from lymphoid progenitors undergoing lineage restriction and the development of specialized ILC subsets. We generated "5x polychromILC" transcription factor reporter mice to delineate ILC precursor states by revealing the multifaceted expression of key ILC-associated transcription factors (Id2, Bcl11b, Gata3, RORγt, and RORα) during ILC development in the bone marrow. This approach allowed previously unattained enrichment of rare progenitor subsets and revealed hitherto unappreciated ILC precursor heterogeneity. In vivo and in vitro assays identified precursors with potential to generate all ILC subsets and natural killer (NK) cells, and also permitted discrimination of elusive ILC3 bone marrow antecedents. Single-cell gene expression analysis identified a discrete ILC2-committed population and delineated transition states between early progenitors and a highly heterogeneous ILC1, ILC3, and NK precursor cell cluster. This diversity might facilitate greater lineage potential upon progenitor recruitment to peripheral tissues.

Inflammation-induced formation of fat-associated lymphoid clusters.

Fat-associated lymphoid clusters (FALCs) are a type of lymphoid tissue associated with visceral fat. Here we found that the distribution of FALCs was heterogeneous, with the pericardium containing large numbers of these clusters. FALCs contributed to the retention of B-1 cells in the peritoneal cavity through high expression of the chemokine CXCL13, and they supported B cell proliferation and germinal center differentiation during peritoneal immunological challenges. FALC formation was induced by inflammation, which triggered the recruitment of myeloid cells that expressed tumor-necrosis factor (TNF) necessary for signaling via the TNF receptors in stromal cells. Natural killer T cells (NKT cells) restricted by the antigen-presenting molecule CD1d were likewise required for the inducible formation of FALCs. Thus, FALCs supported and coordinated the activation of innate B cells and T cells during serosal immune responses.

Tissue-Restricted Adaptive Type 2 Immunity Is Orchestrated by Expression of the Costimulatory Molecule OX40L on Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells.

The local regulation of type 2 immunity relies on dialog between the epithelium and the innate and adaptive immune cells. Here we found that alarmin-induced expression of the co-stimulatory molecule OX40L on group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) provided tissue-restricted T cell co-stimulation that was indispensable for Th2 and regulatory T (Treg) cell responses in the lung and adipose tissue. Interleukin (IL)-33 administration resulted in organ-specific surface expression of OX40L on ILC2s and the concomitant expansion of Th2 and Treg cells, which was abolished upon deletion of OX40L on ILC2s (Il7raCre/+Tnfsf4fl/fl mice). Moreover, Il7raCre/+Tnfsf4fl/fl mice failed to mount effective Th2 and Treg cell responses and corresponding adaptive type 2 pulmonary inflammation arising from Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection or allergen exposure. Thus, the increased expression of OX40L in response to IL-33 acts as a licensing signal in the orchestration of tissue-specific adaptive type 2 immunity, without which this response fails to establish.

The fate of carbon in a mature forest under carbon dioxide enrichment.

Atmospheric carbon dioxide enrichment (eCO2) can enhance plant carbon uptake and growth1-5, thereby providing an important negative feedback to climate change by slowing the rate of increase of the atmospheric CO2 concentration6. Although evidence gathered from young aggrading forests has generally indicated a strong CO2 fertilization effect on biomass growth3-5, it is unclear whether mature forests respond to eCO2 in a similar way. In mature trees and forest stands7-10, photosynthetic uptake has been found to increase under eCO2 without any apparent accompanying growth response, leaving the fate of additional carbon fixed under eCO2 unclear4,5,7-11. Here using data from the first ecosystem-scale Free-Air CO2 Enrichment (FACE) experiment in a mature forest, we constructed a comprehensive ecosystem carbon budget to track the fate of carbon as the forest responded to four years of eCO2 exposure. We show that, although the eCO2 treatment of +150 parts per million (+38 per cent) above ambient levels induced a 12 per cent (+247 grams of carbon per square metre per year) increase in carbon uptake through gross primary production, this additional carbon uptake did not lead to increased carbon sequestration at the ecosystem level. Instead, the majority of the extra carbon was emitted back into the atmosphere via several respiratory fluxes, with increased soil respiration alone accounting for half of the total uptake surplus. Our results call into question the predominant thinking that the capacity of forests to act as carbon sinks will be generally enhanced under eCO2, and challenge the efficacy of climate mitigation strategies that rely on ubiquitous CO2 fertilization as a driver of increased carbon sinks in global forests.

Mcl-1 is essential for the survival of plasma cells.

The long-term survival of plasma cells is entirely dependent on signals derived from their environment. These extrinsic factors presumably induce and sustain the expression of antiapoptotic proteins of the Bcl-2 family. It is uncertain whether there is specificity among Bcl-2 family members in the survival of plasma cells and whether their expression is linked to specific extrinsic factors. We found here that deletion of the gene encoding the antiapoptotic protein Mcl-1 in plasma cells resulted in rapid depletion of this population in vivo. Furthermore, we found that the receptor BCMA was needed to establish high expression of Mcl-1 in bone marrow but not spleen plasma cells and that establishing this survival pathway preceded the component of plasma cell differentiation that depends on the transcriptional repressor Blimp-1. Our results identify a critical role for Mcl-1 in the maintenance of plasma cells.

The transcription factor T-bet is essential for the development of NKp46+ innate lymphocytes via the Notch pathway.

NKp46+ innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) serve important roles in regulating the intestinal microbiota and defense against pathogens. Whether NKp46+ ILCs arise directly from lymphoid tissue-inducer (LTi) cells or represent a separate lineage remains controversial. We report here that the transcription factor T-bet (encoded by Tbx21) was essential for the development of NKp46+ ILCs but not of LTi cells or nuocytes. Deficiency in interleukin 22 (IL-22)-producing NKp46+ ILCs resulted in greater susceptibility of Tbx21-/- mice to intestinal infection. Haploinsufficient T-bet expression resulted in lower expression of the signaling molecule Notch, and Notch signaling was necessary for the transition of LTi cells into NKp46+ ILCs. Furthermore, NKp46+ ILCs differentiated solely from the CD4- LTi population, not the CD4+ LTi population. Our results pinpoint the regulation of Notch signaling by T-bet as a distinct molecular pathway that guides the development of NKp46+ ILCs.

Identification of aceNKPs, a committed common progenitor population of the ILC1 and NK cell continuum.

The development of innate lymphoid cell (ILC) transcription factor reporter mice has shown a previously unexpected complexity in ILC hematopoiesis. Using novel polychromic mice to achieve higher phenotypic resolution, we have characterized bone marrow progenitors that are committed to the group 1 ILC lineage. These common ILC1/NK cell progenitors (ILC1/NKP), which we call "aceNKPs", are defined as lineage-Id2+IL-7Rα+CD25-α4ß7-NKG2A/C/E+Bcl11b-. In vitro, aceNKPs differentiate into group 1 ILCs, including NK-like cells that express Eomes without the requirement for IL-15, and produce IFN-γ and perforin upon IL-15 stimulation. Following reconstitution of Rag2-/-Il2rg-/- hosts, aceNKPs give rise to a spectrum of mature ILC1/NK cells (regardless of their tissue location) that cannot be clearly segregated into the traditional ILC1 and NK subsets, suggesting that group 1 ILCs constitute a dynamic continuum of ILCs that can develop from a common progenitor. In addition, aceNKP-derived ILC1/NK cells effectively ameliorate tumor burden in a model of lung metastasis, where they acquired a cytotoxic NK cell phenotype. Our results identify the primary ILC1/NK progenitor that lacks ILC2 or ILC3 potential and is strictly committed to ILC1/NK cell production irrespective of tissue homing.

Transcription factor RORα is critical for nuocyte development.

Nuocytes are essential in innate type 2 immunity and contribute to the exacerbation of asthma responses. Here we found that nuocytes arose in the bone marrow and differentiated from common lymphoid progenitors, which indicates they are distinct, previously unknown members of the lymphoid lineage. Nuocytes required interleukin 7 (IL-7), IL-33 and Notch signaling for development in vitro. Pro-T cell progenitors at double-negative stage 1 (DN1) and DN2 maintained nuocyte potential in vitro, although the thymus was not essential for nuocyte development. Notably, the transcription factor RORα was critical for the development of nuocytes and their role in the expulsion of parasitic worms.

Predictors and prognosis of pulmonary hypertension complicating interstitial lung disease in systemic sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: To identify those with concurrent pulmonary hypertension (PH) and interstitial lung disease (ILD) in systemic sclerosis (SSc) and determine their disease severity, therapeutic approach, and survival. METHODS: Consecutive SSc patients enrolled in the Australian Scleroderma Cohort Study (ASCS) who were diagnosed on right heart catherisation with pulmonary hypertension were included. Logistic regression was used to determine the associations of ILD with PH hemodynamic parameters and therapeutic approach. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were used to estimate survival. RESULTS: Of 1,883 SSc patients, 164 (8.7%) developed incident PH over a median follow up of 4.3 (1.7-7.9) years. Of these, 43.9% had concurrent ILD at PH diagnosis (PH-ILD) and 56.1% had Group 1 PAH. Extensive ILD was present at PH diagnosis in 40.3%. Despite these distinct PH cohorts, a similar frequency of each PH cohort was treated with vasodilatory therapy at PH diagnosis, regardless of the presence or severity of ILD. The majority (87.5%) of those with extensive ILD and PH received upfront vasodilatory therapy at PH diagnosis with no difference in its tolerability or therapy cessation compared with Group 1 PAH. Although vasodilator therapy was not associated with a survival advantage in those with extensive ILD, its use was associated with an improvement in symptoms, physical function, and quality of life (QoL). CONCLUSION: Despite vasodilator therapy, survival in SSc-PH is poor, with the presence of concurrent ILD associated with worse survival. Although vasodilator therapy commenced at PH diagnosis does not portray an improved survival in PH with extensive ILD, it appears well tolerated and may improve symptoms, physical function, and QoL.

Frequency and implications of malnutrition in systemic sclerosis.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify the frequency and impact of malnutrition in systemic sclerosis (SSc), as diagnosed by the Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition (GLIM) criteria, based on weight loss, body mass index (BMI) and muscle atrophy. METHODS: Australian Scleroderma Cohort Study participants meeting ACR/EULAR criteria for SSc with ≥1 concurrent weight and height measurement were included. Chi-squared tests, two-sample t-tests or Wilcoxon rank-sum tests were used for between-group comparison as appropriate. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to establish the determinants of malnutrition diagnosis. Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional hazard models were used for survival analyses, based on malnutrition diagnosis, and individual GLIM criteria (% weight loss, BMI thresholds and presence of muscle atrophy). RESULTS: In this study of 1903 participants, 43% were diagnosed with malnutrition according to GLIM criteria, of whom 33% had severe malnutrition. Participants diagnosed with malnutrition were older, and more likely to have dcSSc, higher SSc severity scores and RNA polymerase-3 positivity. Gastrointestinal (GI) involvement, multimorbidity, cardiopulmonary disease, raised inflammatory markers, hypoalbuminaemia and anaemia were more common in malnourished participants (p< 0.01). Multimorbidity (OR1.6, 95%CI1.2-2.0, p< 0.01), pulmonary arterial hypertension (OR2.1, 95%CI1.4-2.0, p< 0.01) and upper GI symptoms (OR1.6, 95%CI1.3-2.0, p< 0.01) were all associated with malnutrition.Health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) and physical function were poorer in malnourished participants. Survival was worse in those with malnutrition after adjusting for age, sex and dcSSc (HR 1.4, 95%CI1.1-1.7, p< 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Malnutrition is common in SSc and confers poorer survival, HRQoL and physical function.

A novel method to manage a dislodged self-expanding transcatheter aortic valve.

Despite advancements in technology, operator experience, and procedural planning, transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) procedures are complex, and complications remain inevitable. Valve embolization may prove to be fatal and conventional rescue techniques are dependent on the anatomy of the aorta. We describe a case of postimplant embolization of a self-expanding valve during valve-in-valve application where the valve could not be stabilized due to the anatomy of the aorta and a novel technique was utilized to stabilize the valve in the aortic arch using a wire fixed to the left axillary artery.

Does social connection mediate the association between neuroticism and cognition? Cross-sectional analysis of the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging.

OBJECTIVES: This study tested the association between neuroticism and six cognitive measures, and examined the potential mediating roles of social connection (social isolation and loneliness) among middle-aged and older adults. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was a secondary analysis of the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) Comprehensive Cohort, a sample of Canadians aged 45-85 years at baseline. Respondents with data collected at the first follow-up, between 2015 and 2018, were included (n = 27,765). Structural equation modelling was used to assess the association between neuroticism and six cognitive measures (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test immediate recall and delayed recall, Animal Fluency Test, Mental Alternation Test, Controlled Oral Word Association Test and Stroop Test interference ratio), with direct and indirect effects (through social isolation and loneliness). All analyses were stratified by sex, including females (n = 14,133) and males (n = 13,632). RESULTS: In unadjusted models, there was evidence of associations between neuroticism and all cognitive measures, except the Stroop Test interference ratio, suggesting higher neuroticism was associated with lower scores on memory and executive function tests. In the models of these other five outcomes, there was consistent evidence of indirect effects (through social isolation and loneliness) and, in some cases, direct effects. The results are discussed in context with limitations, including the use of cross-sectional design and alternative hypotheses to explain the association between personality and cognition. CONCLUSION: Among middle-aged and older adults, for both males and females, the findings suggest that the association between neuroticism and cognitive outcomes may be mediated by aspects of social connection.

Progressive pulmonary fibrosis and its impact on survival in systemic sclerosis related interstitial lung disease.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the frequency of progressive pulmonary fibrosis (PPF) in an incident cohort of systemic sclerosis (SSc) related interstitial lung disease (ILD) and its impact on survival. METHODS: Incident ILD was defined as the new development of characteristic fibrotic changes on chest HRCT scan. PPF was defined as per the 2022 American Thoracic Society. Determinants of PPF were identified using generalised estimating equations. Impact on survival was analysed using accelerated failure time regression modelling. RESULTS: Of our incident SSc-ILD cases, 38.8% (n = 180) experienced PPF within a 12-month period after ILD diagnosis. Determinants of PPF included older age (OR 1.02, 95%CI 1.00-1.03, p= 0.011), dcSSc (OR 1.54, 95% CI 1.06-2.25, p= 0.024) and SSc specific antibodies (anticentomere antibody OR 0.51, 95%CI 0.29-0.91, p= 0.021 and anti-Scl-70 antibody OR 1.46, 95%CI 1.01-2.09, p= 0.043). Raised CRP was numerically associated with PPF but did not reach statistical significance (OR 1.29, 95%CI 0.99-1.68, p= 0.064) nor did GORD or dysphagia (OR 1.18, 95%CI 0.57-2.42, p= 0.658 and OR 1.17, 95%CI 0.57-2.40, p= 0.664 respectively). The presence of PPF significantly impacted survival in SSc-ILD (hazard ratio 2.66, 95%CI 1.59-4.41, p< 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: PPF occurred in a third of our incident SSc-ILD cohort; however, its occurrence was significantly associated with mortality indicating an at-risk group who may be suitable for earlier introduction of immunosuppressive and/or antifibrotic therapy.

MHCII-mediated dialog between group 2 innate lymphoid cells and CD4(+) T cells potentiates type 2 immunity and promotes parasitic helminth expulsion.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) release interleukin-13 (IL-13) during protective immunity to helminth infection and detrimentally during allergy and asthma. Using two mouse models to deplete ILC2s in vivo, we demonstrate that T helper 2 (Th2) cell responses are impaired in the absence of ILC2s. We show that MHCII-expressing ILC2s interact with antigen-specific T cells to instigate a dialog in which IL-2 production from T cells promotes ILC2 proliferation and IL-13 production. Deletion of MHCII renders IL-13-expressing ILC2s incapable of efficiently inducing Nippostrongylus brasiliensis expulsion. Thus, during transition to adaptive T cell-mediated immunity, the ILC2 and T cell crosstalk contributes to their mutual maintenance, expansion and cytokine production. This interaction appears to augment dendritic-cell-induced T cell activation and identifies a previously unappreciated pathway in the regulation of type-2 immunity.

Novel mutation in hexokinase 2 confers resistance to 2-deoxyglucose by altering protein dynamics.

Glucose is central to many biological processes, serving as an energy source and a building block for biosynthesis. After glucose enters the cell, hexokinases convert it to glucose-6-phosphate (Glc-6P) for use in anaerobic fermentation, aerobic oxidative phosphorylation, and the pentose-phosphate pathway. We here describe a genetic screen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae that generated a novel spontaneous mutation in hexokinase-2, hxk2G238V, that confers resistance to the toxic glucose analog 2-deoxyglucose (2DG). Wild-type hexokinases convert 2DG to 2-deoxyglucose-6-phosphate (2DG-6P), but 2DG-6P cannot support downstream glycolysis, resulting in a cellular starvation-like response. Curiously, though the hxk2G238V mutation encodes a loss-of-function allele, the affected amino acid does not interact directly with bound glucose, 2DG, or ATP. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that Hxk2G238V impedes sugar binding by altering the protein dynamics of the glucose-binding cleft, as well as the large-scale domain-closure motions required for catalysis. These findings shed new light on Hxk2 dynamics and highlight how allosteric changes can influence catalysis, providing new structural insights into this critical regulator of carbohydrate metabolism. Given that hexokinases are upregulated in some cancers and that 2DG and its derivatives have been studied in anti-cancer trials, the present work also provides insights that may apply to cancer biology and drug resistance.

Characterizing the cascade of care for hepatitis C virus infection among Status First Nations peoples in Ontario: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: As First Nations Peoples are a priority focus of Canada's commitment to eliminating hepatitis C virus (HCV) as a public health threat, understanding individuals' progression from diagnosis to cure can guide prioritization of elimination efforts. We sought to characterize and identify gaps in the HCV care cascade for Status First Nations peoples in Ontario. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, a partnership between the Ontario First Nations HIV/AIDS Education Circle and academic researchers, HCV testing records (1999-2018) for Status First Nations peoples in Ontario were linked to health administrative data. We defined the cascade of care as 6 stages, as follows: tested positive for HCV antibody, tested for HCV RNA, tested positive for HCV RNA, HCV genotyped, initiated treatment and achieved sustained viral response (SVR). We mapped the care cascade from 1999 to 2018, and estimated the number and proportion of people at each stage. We stratified analyses by sex, diagnosis date and location of residence. We used Cox regression to analyze the secondary outcomes, namely the associations between undergoing HCV RNA testing and initiating treatment, and demographic and clinical predictors. RESULTS: By Dec. 31, 2018, 4962 people tested positive for HCV antibody. Of those testing positive, 4118 (83.0%) were tested for HCV RNA, with 2480 (60.2%) testing positive. Genotyping was completed in 2374 (95.7%) of those who tested positive for HCV RNA, with 1002 (42.2%) initiating treatment. Nearly 80% (n = 801, 79.9%) of treated people achieved SVR, with 34 (4.2%) experiencing reinfection or relapse. Undergoing testing for HCV RNA was more likely among people in older age categories (within 1 yr of antibody test; adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 1.30, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.19-1.41, among people aged 41-60 yr; adjusted HR 1.47, 95% CI 1.18-1.81, among people aged > 60 yr), those living in rural areas (adjusted HR 1.20, 95% CI 1.10-1.30), those with an index date after Dec. 31, 2013 (era of treatment with direct-acting antiviral regimens) (adjusted HR 1.99, 95% CI 1.85-2.15) and those with a record of substance use or addictive disorders (> 1 yr after antibody test; adjusted HR 1.38, 95% CI 1.18-1.60). Treatment initiation was more likely among people in older age categories at index date (adjusted HR 1.32, 95% CI 1.15-1.50, among people aged 41-60 yr; adjusted HR 2.62, 95% CI 1.80-3.82, among people aged > 60 yr) and those with a later diagnosis year (adjusted HR 2.71, 95% CI 2.29-3.22). INTERPRETATION: In comparison with HCV testing and diagnosis, a substantial gap in treatment initiation remains among Status First Nations populations in Ontario. Elimination efforts that prioritize linkage to care and integration with harm reduction and substance use services are needed to close gaps in HCV care among First Nations populations in Ontario.

Neurocognitive, Psychosocial, and Quality of Life Outcomes After Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children Admitted to the PICU.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate neurocognitive, psychosocial, and quality of life (QoL) outcomes in children with Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) seen 3-6 months after PICU admission. DESIGN: National prospective cohort study March 2020 to November 2021. SETTING: Seven PICUs in the Netherlands. PATIENTS: Children with MIS-C (0-17 yr) admitted to a PICU. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Children and/or parents were seen median (interquartile range [IQR] 4 mo [3-5 mo]) after PICU admission. Testing included assessment of neurocognitive, psychosocial, and QoL outcomes with reference to Dutch pre-COVID-19 general population norms. Effect sizes (Hedges' g ) were used to indicate the strengths and clinical relevance of differences: 0.2 small, 0.5 medium, and 0.8 and above large. Of 69 children with MIS-C, 49 (median age 11.6 yr [IQR 9.3-15.6 yr]) attended follow-up. General intelligence and verbal memory scores were normal compared with population norms. Twenty-nine of the 49 followed-up (59%) underwent extensive testing with worse function in domains such as visual memory, g = 1.0 (95% CI, 0.6-1.4), sustained attention, g = 2.0 (95% CI 1.4-2.4), and planning, g = 0.5 (95% CI, 0.1-0.9). The children also had more emotional and behavioral problems, g = 0.4 (95% CI 0.1-0.7), and had lower QoL scores in domains such as physical functioning g = 1.3 (95% CI 0.9-1.6), school functioning g = 1.1 (95% CI 0.7-1.4), and increased fatigue g = 0.5 (95% CI 0.1-0.9) compared with population norms. Elevated risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was seen in 10 of 30 children (33%) with MIS-C. Last, in the 32 parents, no elevated risk for PTSD was found. CONCLUSIONS: Children with MIS-C requiring PICU admission had normal overall intelligence 4 months after PICU discharge. Nevertheless, these children reported more emotional and behavioral problems, more PTSD, and worse QoL compared with general population norms. In a subset undergoing more extensive testing, we also identified irregularities in neurocognitive functions. Whether these impairments are caused by the viral or inflammatory response, the PICU admission, or COVID-19 restrictions remains to be investigated.

Clinical utility of nailfold capillaroscopy.

Nailfold capillaroscopy (NFC) is a simple noninvasive microscopic technique used to identify characteristic morphological abnormalities in the nailfold capillaries. The presence of this microvasculopathy appears to be of fundamental importance in the pathological processes that underlie the scleroderma spectrum disorders (including dermatomyositis and antisynthetase myositis). This review discusses the different methodologies and techniques in performing NFC and stresses the diagnostic utility achieved with simple 'bedside' techniques utilising the ophthalmoscope, dermatoscope or smart phone. Recent advances in reporting abnormal microvascular patterns and vascular metrics (e.g. capillary density and dropout) are discussed. The aetiopathogenesis of the microvasculopathy is currently unknown but its close association with Raynaud Phenomena and specific autoantibodies together with recent observations from sequential NFC allows speculations on its possible mechanism. Finally, future developments in the use of NFC as a possible biomarker in the management of the scleroderma spectrum disorders are discussed, with a recommendation that NFC becomes more widely available, particularly in rheumatological, immunological and dermatological practice. NFC provides a clinically accessible window on the pathologic process fundamental to scleroderma-related disease.