Molecular kinetics and cooperative effects in friction and adhesion of fast reversible bonds.

Molecular mechanisms of adhesion and friction include the rupture of single and multiple bonds. The strength of adhesion and friction thus depends on the molecular kinetics and cooperative effects in the lifetime of bonds under stress. We measured the rate dependence of friction and adhesion mediated by supramolecular guest-host bonds using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The tip of the AFM and the surface were functionalized with cyclodextrin hosts. The influence of molecular kinetics on adhesion and friction was studied using three different ditopic guest molecules that connected the AFM tip and the surface. Adamantane, ferrocene, and azobenzene were the guest end groups of the connector molecules that formed inclusion complexes with the cyclodextrin hosts. The results confirm the importance of the molecular off-rate and of cooperative effects for the strength of adhesion and friction. Positive cooperativity also shapes the dependence of friction on the concentration of connector molecules, which follows the Hill-Langmuir model. Based on the Hill coefficient of 3.6, reflecting a characteristic rupture of at least 3-4 parallel bonds, a rescaling of the pulling rate is suggested that shifts the rate dependence of adhesion and friction for the three different molecules towards one master curve.

Single-molecule force spectroscopy of fast reversible bonds.

In single-molecule force spectroscopy, the unbinding force is often used to quantify the interaction strength of single molecular bonds. We analyze force spectroscopy of fast reversible bonds probed in thermodynamic equilibrium by considering the dynamics of force probe and molecular linker. The effect of cantilever and linker dynamics is systematically addressed by measuring the unbinding force of single cyclodextrin inclusion complexes by atomic force spectroscopy for a variety of molecular linkers and varying force probe stiffness. The unbinding force of individual bonds probed in thermodynamic equilibrium is not unique for the molecular system but scales with , the square root of the force probe stiffness, and is largely independent of the molecular linker stiffness. The observations are explained by an effective potential resulting from fast linker fluctuations and fast rebinding kinetics which is probed by an AFM cantilever. The slow cantilever dynamics in the kHz range act as mechanical low pass filter, allowing for fast rebinding kinetics of the molecular complex in the order of 106 kHz. The binding energy of the complex can be estimated from the unbinding force as a function of cantilever stiffness, however with some uncertainty arising from lack of a model in three dimensions.

One-pot synthesis of block-copolyrotaxanes through controlled rotaxa-polymerization.

The aqueous reversible addition fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) copolymerization of isoprene and bulky comonomers, an acrylate and an acrylamide in the presence of methylated ß-cyclodextrin was employed for the first time to synthesize block-copolyrotaxanes. RAFT polymerizations started from a symmetrical bifunctional trithiocarbonate and gave rise to triblock-copolymers where the outer polyacrylate/polyacrylamide blocks act as stoppers for the cyclodextrin rings threaded onto the inner polyisoprene block. Statistical copolyrotaxanes were synthesized by RAFT polymerization as well. RAFT polymerization conditions allow control of the composition as well as the sequence of the constituents of the polymer backbone which further effects the CD content and the aqueous solubility of the polyrotaxane.

Interactions between shape-persistent macromolecules as probed by AFM.

Water-soluble shape-persistent cyclodextrin (CD) polymers with amino-functionalized end groups were prepared starting from diacetylene-modified cyclodextrin monomers by a combined Glaser coupling/click chemistry approach. Structural perfection of the neutral CD polymers and inclusion complex formation with ditopic and monotopic guest molecules were proven by MALDI-TOF and UV-vis measurements. Small-angle neutron and X-ray (SANS/SAXS) scattering experiments confirm the stiffness of the polymer chains with an apparent contour length of about 130 Å. Surface modification of planar silicon wafers as well as AFM tips was realized by covalent bound formation between the terminal amino groups of the CD polymer and a reactive isothiocyanate-silane monolayer. Atomic force measurements of CD polymer decorated surfaces show enhanced supramolecular interaction energies which can be attributed to multiple inclusion complexes based on the rigidity of the polymer backbone and the regular configuration of the CD moieties. Depending on the geometrical configuration of attachment anisotropic adhesion characteristics of the polymer system can be distinguished between a peeling and a shearing mechanism.

One Pot Synthesis of a Polyisoprene Polyrotaxane and Conversion to a Slide-Ring Gel.

Synthesis of a cyclodextrin (CD) polyrotaxane is achieved for the first time by simultaneous free radical polymerization of isoprene, threading by CD, and stoppering by copolymerization of styrene. This reaction is performed in an eco-friendly manner in an aqueous medium similar to classical emulsion polymerization. Threaded CD rings of the polyrotaxane are cross-linked by hexamethylene diisocyanate, leading to highly elastic slide-ring gels.

Site-specific conjugation of 8-ethynyl-BODIPY to a protein by [2 + 3] cycloaddition.

We report a straightforward synthesis of 8-ethynyl-BODIPY derivatives and their potential as fluorescent labeling compounds using an alkyne-azide click chemistry approach. The ethynyl substituted BODIPY dyes at the meso-position were reacted under Cu(+) catalysis and mild physiological conditions in organic and biological model systems using benzyl azide and a Barstar protein which was selectively modified by a single amino acid substituted methionine at the N-terminus (Met1) → azidohomoalanine (Aha). Conjugation with the protein and the model azide was indicated by a significant blue shift upon formation of the triazole moiety system, which allowed easy distinction between free and coupled dyes. This blue shift was rationalized by the perpendicular orientation of the triazole relative to the chromophore using time dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) calculations. A full spectroscopic and thermodynamic characterization of the protein revealed that a fluorophore was incorporated without the cross influence of protein stability and functional integrity. Furthermore, model reactions of 8-ethynyl-BODIPY derivatives with benzyl azide under copper-free conditions indicate second order kinetics with high rate constants comparable with those found for the strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC). In this way, we establish a unique and highly efficient method to introduce alkyne-BODIPY into a protein scaffold potentially useful for diverse applications in areas ranging from fundamental protein dynamics studies to biotechnology or cell biology.

Conjugates of methylated cyclodextrin derivatives and hydroxyethyl starch (HES): Synthesis, cytotoxicity and inclusion of anaesthetic actives.

The mono-6-deoxy-6-azides of 2,6-di-O-methyl-ß-cyclodextrin (DIMEB) and randomly methylated-ß-cyclodextrin (RAMEB) were conjugated to propargylated hydroxyethyl starch (HES) by Cu(+)-catalysed [2 + 3] cycloaddition. The resulting water soluble polymers showed lower critical solution temperatures (LCST) at 52.5 °C (DIMEB-HES) and 84.5 °C (RAMEB-HES), respectively. LCST phase separations could be completely avoided by the introduction of a small amount of carboxylate groups at the HES backbone. The methylated CDs conjugated to the HES backbone exhibited significantly lower cytotoxicities than the corresponding monomeric CD derivatives. Since the binding potentials of these CD conjugates were very high, they are promising candidates for new oral dosage forms of anaesthetic actives.

Synthesis of uniform cyclodextrin thioethers to transport hydrophobic drugs.

Methyl and ethyl thioether groups were introduced at all primary positions of α-, ß-, and γ-cyclodextrin by nucleophilic displacement reactions starting from the corresponding per-(6-deoxy-6-bromo)cyclodextrins. Further modification of all 2-OH positions by etherification with iodo terminated triethylene glycol monomethyl ether (and tetraethylene glycol monomethyl ether, respectively) furnished water-soluble hosts. Especially the ß-cyclodextrin derivatives exhibit very high binding potentials towards the anaesthetic drugs sevoflurane and halothane. Since the resulting inclusion compounds are highly soluble in water at temperatures ≤37 °C they are good candidates for new aqueous dosage forms which would avoid inhalation anaesthesia.

Topochemical control of the photodimerization of aromatic compounds by γ-cyclodextrin thioethers in aqueous solution.

The formation of soluble 1:2 complexes within hydrophilic γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD) thioethers allows to perform photodimerizations of aromatic guests under controlled, homogenous reaction conditions. The quantum yields for unsubstituted anthracene, acenaphthylene, and coumarin complexed in these γ-CD thioethers were found to be up to 10 times higher than in the non-complexed state. The configuration of the photoproduct reflected the configuration of the dimeric inclusion complex of the guest. Anti-parallel orientation of acenaphthylene within the CD cavity led to the exclusive formation of the anti photo-dimer in quantitative yield. Parallel orientation of coumarin within the complex of a CD thioether led to the formation of the syn head-to-head dimer. The degree of complexation of coumarin could be increased by employing the salting out effect.

Space filling of ß-cyclodextrin and ß-cyclodextrin derivatives by volatile hydrophobic guests.

The inclusion of volatile derivatives of benzene and cyclohexane in ß-cyclodextrin (ß-CD), hydroxypropyl-ß-CD, and hydrophilic ß-CD-thioethers was investigated by static headspace gas chromatography (HS-GC) and molecular modelling. The obtained binding constants strongly increase with the amount of space filling of the CD cavity and the salt concentration. ß-CD thioethers show a 3-10 times higher binding potential than native ß-CD.

Betulin complex in γ-cyclodextrin derivatives: properties and antineoplasic activities in in vitro and in vivo tumor models.

Given the present high incidence of melanoma and skin cancer, interest in potential drugs of plant origin has increased significantly. Pentacyclic lupane-type triterpenes are widely distributed in plants, offering numerous pharmacological benefits. Betulin is an important compound in the bark of Betula pendula Roth and has important therapeutic properties, including antitumor activities. Its biological effect is limited by its poor water solubility, which can be improved by cyclodextrin complexation. The best results have been obtained by using a novel cyclodextrin derivative, octakis-[6-deoxy-6-(2-sulfanyl ethanesulfonate)]-γ-CD. The complexes between betulin and the previously mentioned cyclodextrin were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM)and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and pharmacologically evaluated in vitro (MTT and immunocytochemistry tests) and in vivo in C57BL/6J mice. The solubility of betulin is improved by cyclodextrin complexation, which creates a stable complex that improves the in vitro and in vivo properties of the active compound.

Influence of intramolecular hydrogen bonds on the binding potential of methylated ß-cyclodextrin derivatives.

Various heptasubstituted derivatives of ß-cyclodextrin (ß-CD) bearing 1, 2 and 3 methyl substituents per glucose unit were synthesized by regioselective methods. Binding free energies and binding enthalpies of these hosts towards 4-tert-butylbenzoate and adamantane-1-carboxylate were determined by isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC). It was found that methyl substituents at the secondary positions of ß-CD lead to a tremendous reduction of the binding potential, while methylation at the primary positions significantly improved binding. Stabilizing intramolecular hydrogen bonds between the glucose units were made responsible for the high binding potentials of those ß-CD derivatives that possess secondary hydroxy groups.

Molecular solubilization of fullerene C(60) in water by γ-cyclodextrin thioethers.

Various hydrophilic γ-cyclodextrin (CD) thioethers, containing neutral or ionic side arms were found to form molecular disperse solutions of C(60) in water reaching concentrations of 15 mg/L. Equilibrium state was approached after seven days without the use of organic cosolvents. The 1:2 stoichiometry of the C(60)/γ-CD thioether complexes was demonstrated by a parabolic phase-solubility diagram. In contrast, native γ-CD forms nanoparticles with C(60). Particle sizes of C(60) were determined by dynamic light scattering.

Synthesis of Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)-Based Polyrotaxane via Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer Polymerization.

A polyrotaxane (PR) with poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) as the main chain polymer was prepared via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Because of the special mechanism of RAFT, the suprastructure of a PMMA-based PR is established by synthesizing inclusion complexes of methyl methacrylate and gamma-cyclodextrin (γCD) into the middle of the poly-N-(3-dimethylamino) propyl methacrylamide segments. The presence of threaded γCD was determined via diffusion ordered spectroscopy from the alignment of the mobility of γCD and the main chain polymer. A PMMA-based PR with 2-20% CD coverage and a molecular weight of 7K-60K g/mol of PMMA-based PR was synthesized with a targeted molecular structure by mediating the RAFT polymerization. The PMMA-based PR prepared in this study is expected to be suitable for wide applications of tough materials with good heat resistance. Moreover, the investigation of this synthetical approach opened possibilities for more variety of PR with controllable properties.

Synthesis and in vitro evaluation of cyclodextrin hyaluronic acid conjugates as a new candidate for intestinal drug carrier for steroid hormones.

Steroid hormones became increasingly interesting as active pharmaceutical ingredients for the treatment of endocrine disorders. However, medical applications of many steroidal drugs are inhibited by their very low aqueous solubilities giving rise to low bioavailabilities. Therefore, the prioritized oral administration of steroidal drugs remains problematic. Cyclodextrins are promising candidates for the development of drug delivery systems for oral route applications, since they solubilize hydrophobic steroids and increase their rate of transport in aqueous environments. In this study, the synthesis and characterization of polymeric ß-cyclodextrin derivates is described, which result from the attachment of a hydrophilic ß-CD-thioether to hyaluronic acid. Host-guest complexes of the synthesized ß-cyclodextrin hyaluronic acid conjugates were formed with two poorly soluble model steroids (ß-estradiol, dexamethasone) and compared to monomeric ß-cyclodextrin derivates regarding solubilization and complexation efficiency. The ß-cyclodextrin-drug (host-guest) complexes were evaluated in vitro for their suitability (cytotoxicity and transport rate) as intestinal drug carriers for steroid hormones. In case of ß-estradiol, higher solubilities could be achieved by complexation with both synthesized ß-cyclodextrin derivates, leading to significantly higher intestinal transport rates in vitro. However, this success could not be shown for dexamethasone, which namely solubilized better, but could not enhance the transport rate significantly. Thus, this study demonstrates the biocompatibility of the synthesized and characterized ß-cyclodextrin derivates and shows their potential as new candidate for intestinal drug carrier for steroid hormones like ß-estradiol.

Synthesis of the Anionic Hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin:Poly(decamethylenephosphate) Polyrotaxane and Evaluation of its Cholesterol Efflux Potential in Niemann-Pick C1 Cells.

Niemann-Pick type C disease (NPC) is a lysosomal storage disease that is characterized by a progressive accumulation of unesterified cholesterol in the lysosomes leading to organ damage from cell dysfunction. Hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HP-ß-CD) is an attractive drug candidate for treating NPC, as it diminishes cholesterol accumulation in NPC cells. Systemic HP-ß-CD treatment, however, is limited by rapid renal clearance. We designed a new anionic HP-ß-CD polyrotaxane to act as a slow release formulation based on a polyalkylene phosphate core to improve the pharmacokinetics. The polyalkylene phosphate comprises hydrophobic decamethylene spacers linked by biodegradable anionic phosphodiester bonds. HP-ß-CD was threaded onto this polymer first and α-CD afterwards to prevent burst release of the threaded HP-ß-CD. Our findings show that HP-ß-CD was slowly released from the watersoluble polyrotaxane over a 30 days period. The polyrotaxane provided persistently diminished cholesterol levels in NPC1 cells by 20% relative to untreated cells. These results demonstrate the therapeutic potential of this novel HP-ß-CD polyrotaxane for the mobilization of aberrantly stored cholesterol in NPC1 cells.

Reversible immobilization of a protein to a gold surface through multiple host-guest interactions.

Monolayers were formed by specific interactions between adamantylated proteins (transferrin, lysozyme) and a ß-cyclodextrin (ß-CD) monolayer on a gold surface. Very high stabilities could be reached by multiple interactions of 3-6 adamantyl moieties linked through triethylene glycol spacers to the protein with ß-CD rings attached to the surface. Furthermore, bound proteins could be completely removed from the surface through competitive binding of an excess of free adamantane. Regenerable protein sensor chips can be constructed by using this supramolecular toolbox. Attached proteins are still recognized by specific antibodies, which was attributed to a loose packing of the protein molecules at the ß-CD monolayer.