On the Origin and Evolution of the Mosquito Male-determining Factor Nix.

The mosquito family Culicidae is divided into 2 subfamilies named the Culicinae and Anophelinae. Nix, the dominant male-determining factor, has only been found in the culicines Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, 2 important arboviral vectors that belong to the subgenus Stegomyia. Here we performed sex-specific whole-genome sequencing and RNAseq of divergent mosquito species and explored additional male-inclusive datasets to investigate the distribution of Nix. Except for the Culex genus, Nix homologs were found in all species surveyed from the Culicinae subfamily, including 12 additional species from 3 highly divergent tribes comprising 4 genera, suggesting Nix originated at least 133 to 165 million years ago (MYA). Heterologous expression of 1 of 3 divergent Nix open reading frames (ORFs) in Ae. aegypti resulted in partial masculinization of genetic females as evidenced by morphology and doublesex splicing. Phylogenetic analysis suggests Nix is related to femaleless (fle), a recently described intermediate sex-determining factor found exclusively in anopheline mosquitoes. Nix from all species has a conserved structure, including 3 RNA-recognition motifs (RRMs), as does fle. However, Nix has evolved at a much faster rate than fle. The RRM3 of both Nix and fle are distantly related to the single RRM of a widely distributed and conserved splicing factor transformer-2 (tra2). The RRM3-based phylogenetic analysis suggests this domain in Nix and fle may have evolved from tra2 or a tra2-related gene in a common ancestor of mosquitoes. Our results provide insights into the evolution of sex determination in mosquitoes and will inform broad applications of mosquito-control strategies based on manipulating sex ratios toward nonbiting males.

Vector Biology and Integrated Management of Malaria Vectors in China.

Malaria is an infectious disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, transmitted by Anopheles sinensis, Anopheles lesteri, Anopheles minimus, and Anopheles dirus in China. In 2021, the disease was eliminated in China after more than 70 years of efforts implementing an integrated mosquito management strategy. This strategy comprised indoor residual spray, insecticide-treated bed nets, irrigation management, and rice-fish coculture based on an understanding of taxonomic status and ecological behaviors of vector species, in conjunction with mass drug administration and promotion of public education. However, China still faces postelimination challenges, including the importation of approximately 2,000-4,000 cases of malaria into the country each year, as well as widespread resistance to pyrethroid insecticides in An. sinensis; these challenges require long-term vector surveillance to understand the distribution, population density, and development of resistance in vector mosquitoes to prevent local epidemics caused by imported malaria cases.

Insecticide resistance: Status and potential mechanisms in Aedes aegypti.

Aedes aegypti, an important vector in the transmission of human diseases, has developed resistance to two commonly used classes of insecticides, pyrethroids and organophosphates, in populations worldwide. This study examined sensitivity/resistance to chlorpyrifos, fenitrothion, malathion, deltamethrin, permethrin, and ß-cyfluthrin, along with possible metabolic detoxification and target site insensitivity, in three Aedes aegypti mosquito strains. The resistant strain (PR) had developed high levels of resistance to all three pyrethroid insecticides compared to a susceptible population, with 6, 500-, 3200- and 17,000-fold resistance to permethrin, ß-cyfluthrin, and deltamethrin, respectively. A newly emerged Ae. aegypti population collected from St. Augustine, Florida (AeStA) showed elevated levels of resistance to malathion (12-fold) and permethrin (25-fold). Synergists DEF (S,S,S,-tributyl phosphorotrithioate) and DEM (diethyl maleate) showed no or minor effects on insecticide resistance in both the AeStA and PRG20strains, but PBO (piperonyl butoxide) completely abolished resistance to both malathion and permethrin in AeStA and partially suppressed resistance in PR. The voltage-gated sodium channel sequences were examined to explore the mechanism that only partially inhibited the suppression of resistance to PBO in PR. Two mutations, V1016G/I and F1534C substitutions, both of which are associated with the development of pyrethroid resistance, were identified in the PRG20 strain but not in AeStA. These results suggest that while cytochrome P450 mediated detoxification may not be solely responsible, it is the major mechanism governing the development of resistance in AeStA. Both P450 mediated detoxification and target site insensitivity through the mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel contribute to the high levels of resistance in the PRG20 strain.

Testing configurations of attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) stations in Mali, West Africa, for improving the control of malaria parasite transmission by vector mosquitoes and minimizing their effect on non-target insects.

BACKGROUND: Application methods of |Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits (ATSB) need to be improved for wide-scale use, and effects on non-target organisms (NTOs) must be assessed. The goals of this study were to determine, at the village level, the effect of different configurations of bait stations to (1) achieve < 25% Anopheles mosquito vector daily feeding rate for both males and females and (2) minimize the effect on non-target organisms. METHODS: Dye was added to Attractive Sugar Bait Stations (without toxin) to mark mosquitoes feeding on the baits, and CDC UV light traps were used to monitor for marked mosquitoes. An array of different traps were used to catch dye marked NTOs, indicating feeding on the ASB. Stations were hung on homes (1, 2, or 3 per home to optimize density) at different heights (1.0 m or 1.8 m above the ground). Eight villages were chosen as for the experiments. RESULTS: The use of one ASB station per house did not mark enough mosquitoes. Use of two and three stations per house gave feeding rates above the 25% goal. There was no statistical difference in the percentage of marked mosquitoes between two and three stations, however, the catches using two and three bait stations were both significantly higher than using one. There was no difference in An. gambiae s.l. feeding when stations were hung at 1.0 and 1.8 m. At 1.8 m stations sustained less accidental damage. ASB stations 1.8 m above ground were fed on by three of seven monitored insect orders. The monitored orders were: Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Neuroptera and Orthoptera. Using one or two stations significantly reduced percentage of bait-fed NTOs compared to three stations which had the highest feeding rates. Percentages were as follows: 6.84 ± 2.03% Brachycera followed by wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) 5.32 ± 2.27%, and Rhopalocera 2.22 ± 1.79%. Hanging the optimal number of stations per house for catching mosquitoes (two) at 1.8 m above ground, limited the groups of non-targets to Brachycera, Chironomidae, Noctuoidea, Rhopalocera, parasitic wasps and wasps (Hymenoptera). Feeding at 1.8 m only occurred when stations were damaged. CONCLUSIONS: The goal of marking quarter of the total Anopheles population per day was obtained using 2 bait stations at 1.8 m height above the ground. This configuration also had minimal effects on non-target insects.

Fighting mosquito bite during a crisis: capabilities of Florida mosquito control districts during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The stay-at-home orders imposed in early April 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in various states complicated mosquito control activities across the United States (US), and Florida was no exception. Mosquito control programs are the first line of defense against mosquito-borne pathogens. The purpose of this study was to examine the capabilities of Florida mosquito programs to implement key mosquito measures during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. METHODS: Using a self-administered online survey, we examined the capabilities of all Florida mosquito control programs (both state-approved mosquito districts, N = 63; and open programs, N = 27) at a time when the state of Florida was still under heightened awareness of, stay-at-home orders and planning a phase 1 reopening over the COVID-19 pandemic (June to July 2020). The final sample included mosquito control programs structured as the Board of County Commissioners (BOCC) (n = 42), independent tax district (n = 16), municipal (n = 10), and health or emergency department (n = 5). We used descriptive statistics to summarize information about the characteristics of responding programs, their implemented mosquito control and surveillance activities.  wWe used bivariate analysis to compare the characteristics of responding programs and the self-reported mosquito measures. RESULTS: Of the recruited mosquito control programs, 73 completed the survey (81.1% response rate; 73/90). Of these, 57.5% (n = 42) were Board of County Commissioners (BOCC) mosquito control programs, 21.9% (n = 16) were independent tax district programs, 13.7% (n = 10) were municipal mosquito control programs, and only 6.8% (n = 5) were either health or emergency department mosquito control programs. Except for arbovirus surveillance, most programs either fully or partially performed larval (61.8%) and adult (78.9%) surveillance; most programs conducted species-specific control for Aedes aegypti (85.2%, n = 54), Aedes albopictus (87.3%, n = 55), Culex quinquefasciatus (92.1%, n = 58), and Culex nigripalpus (91.9%, n = 57). CONCLUSIONS: Findings underscore the importance of ongoing mosquito control activities, and suggest that Florida mosquito control programs are vigilant and have significant capability to handle potential mosquito-borne disease threats, but arbovirus surveillance systems (laboratory testing of mosquito pools and testing of human and nonhuman specimens for arboviruses) are needed during pandemics as well.

Large-scale field trial of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) for the control of malaria vector mosquitoes in Mali, West Africa.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this field trial was to evaluate the efficacy of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) in Mali, where sustained malaria transmission occurs despite the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). ATSB bait stations were deployed in seven of 14 similar study villages, where LLINs were already in widespread use. The combined use of ATSB and LLINs was tested to see if it would substantially reduce parasite transmission by Anopheles gambiae sensu lato beyond use of LLINs alone. METHODS: A 2-day field experiment was conducted to determine the number of mosquitoes feeding on natural sugar versus those feeding on bait stations containing attractive sugar bait without toxin (ASB)-but with food dye. This was done each month in seven random villages from April to December 2016. In the following year, in seven treatment villages from May to December 2017, two ATSB bait stations containing the insecticide dinotefuran were placed on the outer walls of each building. Vector population density was evaluated monthly by CDC UV light traps, malaise traps, pyrethrum spray (PSCs) and human landing catches (HLCs). Female samples of the catch were tested for age by examination of the ovarioles in dissected ovaries and identification of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infection by ELISA. Entomological inoculation rates (EIR) were calculated, and reductions between treated and untreated villages were determined. RESULTS: In the 2-day experiment with ASB each month, there was a lower number of male and female mosquitoes feeding on the natural sugar sources than on the ASB. ATSB deployment reduced CDC-UV trap female catches in September, when catches were highest, were by 57.4% compared to catches in control sites. Similarly, malaise trap catches showed a 44.3% reduction of females in August and PSC catches of females were reduced by 48.7% in September. Reductions of females in HLCs were lower by 19.8% indoors and 26.3% outdoors in September. The high reduction seen in the rainy season was similar for males and reductions in population density for both males and females were > 70% during the dry season. Reductions of females with ≥ 3 gonotrophic cycles were recorded every month amounting to 97.1% in October and 100.0% in December. Reductions in monthly EIRs ranged from 77.76 to 100.00% indoors and 84.95% to 100.00% outdoors. The number of sporozoite infected females from traps was reduced by 97.83% at treated villages compared to controls. CONCLUSIONS: Attractive toxic sugar baits used against Anopheles mosquitoes in Mali drastically reduced the density of mosquitoes, the number of older females, the number of sporozoite infected females and the EIR demonstrating how ATSB significantly reduces malaria parasite transmission.

Evaluation of Pyriproxyfen Dissemination via Aedes albopictus From a Point-Source Larvicide Application in Northeast Florida.

The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus , ranks among the most important vectors of dengue fever, Zika virus, and chikungunya virus. With no specific medications or vaccines available, vector control is the only way to combat these diseases. Autodissemination of the insect growth regulator pyriproxyfen (NyGuard®) from a point-source treatment was evaluated in field settings in northeast Florida. The objective of this study was to investigate the possibility of pyriproxyfen dissemination from a treatment site to nontreated oviposition sites via the skip oviposition behavior of Ae. albopictus. A spray application was made to a tire pile using a Stihl® SR 420 backpack sprayer. Autodissemination oviposition vases containing oak infusion water were positioned in groups of five at 25 to 400 m in 4 transects surrounding the tire pile. Two sets of 5 control vases containing oak infusion water were placed 1,500 m from the tire pile and oak infusion water samples were collected directly from the tire pile. Fifty milliliter samples were extracted from each vase weekly and preserved for pyriproxyfen residue analysis. All vases were analyzed at week 0 (4 h post-treatment), 1, 2, 4, and 6. Overall, there were no differences in pupal mortality between the control and autodissemination vases. The tire pile samples had significantly more mortality (P < 0.0001) out to 4 wk when compared to autodissemination and control vases.

Comparison of Two New Traps To the Biogents BG-Sentinel Trap For Collecting Aedes albopictus In North Florida.

Multiple surveillance traps are currently available for adult mosquito surveillance. In this study, 2 new types, the Maxttrac™ Uno and Maxttrac™ Breeze mosquito traps, were compared against the BioGents™-Sentinel trap (BGS) for overall success in collecting Aedes albopictus in a 1,027-m2 vehicle enclosure and in the field. The enclosure test results showed both traps collected significantly fewer Ae. albopictus, compared to the BGS trap. The modification of using all BG lures for each trap did not increase the number of mosquitoes collected in the 2 new traps, when compared to collection with the original lures tested in the vehicle enclosure. Field test results showed that BGS trap collected higher numbers of Ae. albopictus than the 2 new traps, regardless of switching lure or not. Overall, the BGS trap was the most effective trap and the 2 new traps could be used as additional tools for the collection of Ae. albopictus.

Effect of Common Species of Florida Landscaping Plants on the Efficacy of Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits Against Aedes albopictus.

Attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) was applied to 5 different types of commonly found plants in landscaping of northeastern Florida. The ATSB applications were assessed for possible plant effects and preference against Aedes albopictus in semifield evaluations. Positive and negative controls consisted of plants sprayed with attractive sugar bait (no toxicant) and plants with nothing applied. Bioassays were conducted on stems with leaf clippings and on full plants to assess any difference in mosquito mortality on the different plants. Plants utilized in these evaluations were Indian hawthorne, Yaupon holly, Japanese privet, Loropetalum ruby, and podocarpus. In both assays, no significant difference was observed in the effect of ATSBs on adult female mosquitoes based on the type of plant. ATSB could be applied to common landscape plants for adult Ae. albopictus control.

Effect of Nozzle Orientation on Dispersion of Aqualuer 20-20 Sprayed by a Truck-Mounted Ultra-Low Volume Sprayer Against Caged Aedes aegypti.

Inconsistencies in efficacy of ultra-low volume (ULV) ground applications in the literature are linked to the lack of adjustments in sprayer parameters. To investigate the effect of nozzle orientation of a truck-mounted ULV sprayer on application efficacy, a study was conducted at St. Johns County Fairground, Elkton, FL, during the summer of 2014. The efficacy was assessed by mortality of caged adult Aedes aegypti, spray deposition, and droplet size spectrum up to 122 m from the spray line. Aqualuer 20-20 (20.6% permethrin active ingredient [AI] and 20% piperonyl butoxide [PBO]) was applied at the maximum label rate with the nozzle pointed 45° upward, horizontal (0°), or 30° downward. Mortality was recorded after 24 h, deposition was determined with fluorometry, and droplets were measured with DropVision. Overall, horizontal nozzle angle spraying Aqualuer 20-20 achieved the highest efficacy followed by a 30° downward angle, while a 45° angle showed the least efficacy in open field tests. The mortality data showed complete mortality from a 0° nozzle up to 122 m from the spray line except for 1 location at 122 m in 1 replication. The mortality from a 30° downward orientation was lower beyond 30 m from the spray line, while the mortality from a 45° upward orientation was low close to the spray line and beyond 30 m. Horizontal orientation had higher deposition than other orientations, but the differences were not significant. There was also no significant difference in droplet spectrum from all orientations.

OFF! Clip-on Repellent Device With Metofluthrin Tested on Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) for Mortality at Different Time Intervals and Distances.

The OFF! Clip-on mosquito-repellent device was tested outdoors against Aedes aegypti (L.). A single treatment device was used against batches of caged adult, nonblood fed Ae. aegypti at multiple locations 0.3m from treatment center. Another set of cages was stationed 0.6m from treatment. A final set of cages was placed 0.9m away. Trials ran for durations of 5, 15, 30, and 60 min. Initial knockdown and mortality after 24 h was recorded. The devices had effective knockdown and mortality. This was not sustained at distances greater than 0.3m from the device.

Autodissemination of Insect Growth Regulator, Methoprene, with Two Formulations Against Aedes albopictus.

Recent autodissemination studies have popularly favored pyriproxyfen, but methoprene is already established and widely used in control programs. This study demonstrated that methoprene could also autodisseminate through contaminated gravid females. Arenas of oviposition cups were arranged around methoprene-contaminated bait stations. Gravid female Aedes albopictus were released to allow oviposition. All cups were then removed and tested in an insect growth regulator bioassay. Liquid formulations did not result in adequate autodissemination among treatment groups. Granular formulations pulverized into a fine powder resulted in successful autodissemination. Emergence inhibition was recorded as high as 85% in individual assays. Pooled inhibition across the granular trials was 56.7%. Methoprene has benefits similar to pyriproxyfen use and has the added advantage of already being established and readily available in existing mosquito control programs throughout the USA. Methoprene is a good candidate for continued investigation of autodissemination.

Evaluation of a New Thermal Fog Machine for Control of Adult Aedes albopictus in a Large Enclosed Space.

Testing of the PSO BASDKA-AC1200 multifunction ultrafine particle atomization machine, a thermal fog machine, with Aqualuer 20-20(®) (permethrin 20.6%, piperonyl butoxide 20.6%) was conducted against Aedes albopictus. The machine was set at a 40 sec maximum burst interval dispersing 36 ml of chemical with an average droplet volume of 50%. Female adult Ae. albopictus were placed into cylindrical paper cages and adhered to poles at 5, 8, 10, 15, and 25 m from the center point of the machine. Control cages consisted of 1 cage placed at 5, 10, and 25 m. Control and treatment groups were left in the experiment area for 15 min. Initial knockdown after 15 min and 24 h mortality were documented. At 15 min post-treatment, Ae. albopictus displayed less than 50% knockdown. After 24 h, all treatment cages displayed greater than 90% mortality. Further bottle bioassays were conducted to determine the lowest chemical dose possible to achieve a lethal dose of 90%. A 1% dilution (10 ml Aqualuer 20-20 to 1,000 ml of polyether) of Aqualuer showed high mortality in the laboratory. However, after running 3 repetitions of a 1% dilution, there was no significant difference between the mortality of the mosquitoes at any of the distances 24 h post-treatment. This study indicates that the test machine would be an applicable and suitable machine for control of Ae. albopictus in enclosed spaces.

Evaluation of Three Commercial Handheld Ultra-Low-Volume Foggers with Aqualure® 20-20 Against Adult Aedes albopictus.

The Anastasia Mosquito Control District (AMCD) tests all equipment before field use to determine if machines are suitable for the needs of the district. Three handheld ultra-low-volume (ULV) foggers--the American LongRay (ULV) Fogger Model 3600B with rechargeable lithium battery (DC model), American LongRay ULV Fogger Model 3600E with 110V or 220V AC power (AC model), and Boston Fog Battery Motorized Fogger (Boston Fogger)--were compared to determine which fogger would be most suitable for use by AMCD. Mortality of caged Aedes albopictus was analyzed after 24 h to determine the success of a single application. All 3 foggers resulted in 100% mortality after 24 h using the insecticide Aqualuer 20-20 (active ingredients permethrin 20.6% and piperonyl butoxide 20.6%) 1:5 dilution with reverse osmosis water. Based on operator safety, robustness, and operational performance, the American LongRay DC model was found to be the most suitable at administering Aqualuer 20-20 against caged adult Ae. albopictus.

Evaluation of DeltaGard® Ground Application Against Aedes albopictus in a Residential Area in St. Augustine, Florida.

Aedes albopictus is an invasive species that poses a health threat in many residential neighborhoods throughout Florida. Aedes albopictus is a high priority for mosquito control efforts in the state. The efficacy of DeltaGard(®) (AI 2% deltamethrin) application against Ae. albopictus was evaluated in a residential area in St. Augustine, FL. DeltaGard was applied using a truck-mounted ultra-low-volume aerosol generator along 3 streets in a residential neighborhood. Caged mosquito mortality and droplet density data were recorded. Leaf clippings from houses on treated streets were bioassayed against laboratory-reared Ae. albopictus. Overall, the DeltaGard application was found to be more effective in the front yard of the houses, resulting in 78.3% mortality in caged mosquitoes, 42 % mortality in leaf bioassays, and 50.5 nl/cc in spray density. Based on the amount of vegetation and residential barriers around the houses, the application caused only 46.3% mortality in caged mosquitoes, 7.5% mortality in leaf bioassays, and 5.4 nl/cc in spray density in the back yard sites.

Evaluation and Adaptation of Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits For Culex tarsalis and Culex quinquefasciatus Control In The Coachella Valley, Southern California.

The project goal was to determine how a new vector control strategy that targets the sugar-feeding behavior of mosquitoes, attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSBs), can be used to more effectively control West Nile virus (WNV) vectors in the Coachella Valley, California. Three laboratory studies were conducted to determine the utility of this method for control against Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex tarsalis : 1) efficacy evaluations of 2 formulations of ATSB, microencapsulated garlic oil, and a combination of microencapsulated garlic oil and 1% boric acid; 2) choice assays to determine the attractiveness of ATSB with the microencapsulated garlic oil against attractive sugar baits (ASB; the attractant alone; without toxin) and a 10% sucrose solution; and 3) vegetation efficacy tests on 3 common plant species in the Coachella Valley, Atriplex lentiformis, Tamarix ramosissima , and Pluchea sericea. At 48 h the average mortality for Cx. quinquefasciatus was 91% after exposure to ATSB with microencapsulated garlic oil and 99% on ATSB garlic + 1% boric acid solution. Culex tarsalis averaged 86% and 91% mortality following the ATSB microencapsulated garlic oil solution and the ATSB garlic + 1% boric acid solution, respectively. Choice assays indicated that the there were differences in preferences between the solutions and between species. Both Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. tarsalis were found to prefer the ASB and ATSB solutions to the 10% sucrose solution. However, when comparing the ASB to ATSB, Cx. quinquefasciatus significantly preferred the ASB solution (t = 3.6, df = 25, P = 0.0008). There were no significant differences in the preference of Cx. tarsalis to feed on the ASB or ATSB solutions as indicated in the choice assays (t = 1.9, df = 25, P = 0.07). Assays indicated that applications of ATSB to the 3 common plants in the Coachella Valley resulted in high mortality in both Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. tarsalis. There were significant differences in the treatments compared to the control (F = 40.15, df1,2 = 4,72, P < 0.001) but no significant differences among the different plants and ATSB treatments (F = 1.06, df1,2 = 4,72, P = 0.38). Laboratory findings suggest that ATSB is effective for use against WNV vectors in California. Further evaluations are needed in the field to determine how the environment may impact ATSB applications to influence mosquito mortality and nontarget organisms in arid environments in the United States.

Characteristics and Efficacy of Three Commercial Handheld Thermal Foggers with Pyrethroid Insecticides Against Three Species of Mosquitoes.

The field study's objectives were to compare the physical characteristics as well as efficacy with multiple insecticides for Bonide(®) Fog Rx Insect Fogger, Black Flag(®) Propane Insect Fogger, and Burgess(®) Outdoor Propane Insect Fogger. Evaluations were conducted with 7 machine chemical combinations, 3 depths of spray, and 3 species of laboratory-reared mosquitoes, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Aedes aegypti. Combinations of these factors were analyzed in conjunction with environmental parameters. Data showed statistical significance between all machines. The Bonide machine maintained integrity and durability for the longest period of time compared with the other 2 machines. When evaluating the 3 machines with DUET™, mortality was highest with the Bonide and lowest with the Burgess machine.

Prospects and recommendations for risk mapping to improve strategies for effective malaria vector control interventions in Latin America.

With malaria control in Latin America firmly established in most countries and a growing number of these countries in the pre-elimination phase, malaria elimination appears feasible. A review of the literature indicates that malaria elimination in this region will be difficult without locally tailored strategies for vector control, which depend on more research on vector ecology, genetics and behavioural responses to environmental changes, such as those caused by land cover alterations, and human population movements. An essential way to bridge the knowledge gap and improve vector control is through risk mapping. Malaria risk maps based on statistical and knowledge-based modelling can elucidate the links between environmental factors and malaria vectors, explain interactions between environmental changes and vector dynamics, and provide a heuristic to demonstrate how the environment shapes malaria transmission. To increase the utility of risk mapping in guiding vector control activities, definitions of malaria risk for mapping purposes must be standardized. The maps must also possess appropriate scale and resolution in order to become essential tools in integrated vector management (IVM), so that planners can target areas in greatest need of control measures. Fully integrating risk mapping into vector control programmes will make interventions more evidence-based, making malaria elimination more attainable.

Indoor use of attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) to effectively control malaria vectors in Mali, West Africa.

BACKGROUND: Attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) solutions containing any gut toxins can be either sprayed on plants or used in simple bait stations to attract and kill sugar-feeding female and male mosquitoes. This field study in Mali demonstrates the effect of ATSB bait stations inside houses as a vector control method that targets and kills endophilic African malaria vectors. METHODS: The studies were conducted in five villages located near the River Niger, Mali. Baseline village-wide assessments of densities for female and male Anopheles gambiae sensu lato were performed by pyrethrum spray collections (PSC) in ten houses in each of five villages. To determine the rate of mosquito feeding on bait stations, one bait station per house containing attractive sugar bait (ASB) (without toxin) plus a food dye marker, was set up in ten houses in each of the five villages. PSC collections were conducted on the following day and the percentage of female and male mosquitoes that had fed was determined by visual inspection for the dye marker. Then, a 50-day field trial was done. In an experimental village, one bait station containing ATSB (1% boric acid active ingredient) was placed per bedroom (58 bedrooms), and indoor densities of female and male An. gambiae s.l. were subsequently determined by PSC, and female mosquitoes were age graded. RESULTS: In the five villages, the percentages of An. gambiae s.l. feeding inside houses on the non-toxic bait stations ranged from 28.3 to 53.1% for females and 36.9 to 78.3% for males. Following ATSB indoor bait station presentation, there was a significant reduction, 90% in female and 93% in male populations, of An. gambiae s.l. at the experimental village. A 3.8-fold decrease in the proportion of females that had undergone four or more gonotrophic cycles was recorded at the experimental village, compared to a 1.2-fold increase at the control village. CONCLUSION: The field trial demonstrates that An. gambiae s.l. feed readily from ATSB bait stations situated indoors, leading to a substantial reduction in the proportion of older female mosquitoes. This study demonstrates that ATSB inside houses can achieve impressive malaria vector control in Africa.

Allethrin-Based Mosquito Control Device Causing Knockdown, Morbidity, and Mortality in Four Species of Field-Caught Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae).

A mosquito control device marketed for spatial repellency, the ThermaCELL Mosquito Repellent Appliance, was evaluated in semifield trials against multiple field-caught species of mosquito. Using paper and mesh cages, mosquito test groups of at least 30 mosquitoes were suspended in a 2,337 cubic foot outdoor space while two ThermaCELL repellent devices were active. After 30 min of treatment, cages were moved to the laboratory to observe knockdown, morbidity, and mortality for 24 h. Species tested included Aedes atlanticus Dyar and Knab (98% average mortality), Psorophora ferox Humboldt (97% average mortality), Psorophora columbiae Dyar and Knab (96% average mortality), and Aedes taeniorhynchus Wiedemann (84% average mortality). The repellent devices showed effectiveness with high knockdown and mortality across all species tested. Mosquito control devices like the ThermaCELL Mosquito Repellent Appliance may have further practical applications to help combat viral exposures by limiting host mosquitoes. Such devices may provide a functional alternative to DEET dependence in the current state of mosquito management.