Sub-diffraction optical beam lithography based on a center-non-zero depletion laser.

Photoinhibition (PI) mechanisms have been introduced in nanofabrication which allows breaking the diffraction limit by large factors. Donut-shaped laser is usually selected as a depletion beam to reduce linewidth, but the parasitic process has made the results of the experiment less than expected. As a result, the linewidth is difficult to achieve below 50 nm with 780 nm femtosecond and 532 nm continuous-wave lasers. Here, we propose a new, to the best of our knowledge, method based on a center-non-zero (CNZ) depletion laser to further reduce linewidth. By constructing a smaller zone of action under the condition of keeping the maximum depletion intensity constant, a minimum linewidth of 30 nm (λ / 26) was achieved. Two ways to construct CNZ spots were discussed and experimented, and the results show the advantages of our method to reduce the parasitic process to further improve the writing resolution.

Parallel two-photon lithography achieving uniform sub-200†nm features with thousands of individually controlled foci.

The limited throughput of nano-scale laser lithography has been the bottleneck for its industrial applications. Although using multiple laser foci to parallelize the lithography process is an effective and straightforward strategy to improve rate, most conventional multi-focus methods are plagued by non-uniform laser intensity distribution due to the lack of individual control for each focus, which greatly hinders the nano-scale precision. In this paper, we present a highly uniform parallel two-photon lithography method based on a digital mirror device (DMD) and microlens array (MLA), which allows the generation of thousands of femtosecond (fs) laser foci with individual on-off switching and intensity-tuning capability. In the experiments, we generated a 1,600-laser focus array for parallel fabrication. Notably, the intensity uniformity of the focus array reached 97.7%, where the intensity-tuning precision for each focus reached 0.83%. A uniform dot array structure was fabricated to demonstrate parallel fabrication of sub-diffraction limit features, i.e., below 1/4 λ or 200 nm. The multi-focus lithography method has the potential of realizing rapid fabrication of sub-diffraction, arbitrarily complex, and large-scale 3D structures with three orders of magnitude higher fabrication rate.

High-resolution 3D nanoprinting based on two-step absorption via an integrated fiber-coupled laser diode.

Three-dimensional (3D) laser nanoprinting with high resolution and low cost is highly desirable for fabricating arbitrary 3D structures with fine feature size. In this work, we use a 405-nm integrated fiber-coupled continuous wave (cw) laser diode to establish an easy-to-build 3D nanoprinting system based on two-step absorption. Two-dimensional (2D) gratings with a sub-150-nm period and 3D woodpile nanostructures with a lateral period of 350 nm have been printed at a low speed. At a faster scan velocity of 1000 µm/s, 2D gratings with sub-200-nm resolution and sub-50-nm linewidth can still be fabricated with laser power less than 1 mW. The two-step absorption of the used benzil initiator enables us to use a second cw laser with 532-nm wavelength to enhance the polymerization with sub-100-nm feature size when starting with insufficient 405-nm laser power, which possess the potential to find applications in high-speed high-resolution parallel-writing and in situ manipulation.

Light and matter co-confined multi-photon lithography.

Mask-free multi-photon lithography enables the fabrication of arbitrary nanostructures low cost and more accessible than conventional lithography. A major challenge for multi-photon lithography is to achieve ultra-high precision and desirable lateral resolution due to the inevitable optical diffraction barrier and proximity effect. Here, we show a strategy, light and matter co-confined multi-photon lithography, to overcome the issues via combining photo-inhibition and chemical quenchers. We deeply explore the quenching mechanism and photoinhibition mechanism for light and matter co-confined multiphoton lithography. Besides, mathematical modeling helps us better understand that the synergy of quencher and photo-inhibition can gain a narrowest distribution of free radicals. By using light and matter co-confined multiphoton lithography, we gain a 30 nm critical dimension and 100 nm lateral resolution, which further decrease the gap with conventional lithography.

Impact of Agricultural Mechanization Level on Farmers' Health Status in Western China: Analysis Based on CHARLS Data.

Agricultural mechanization is an important component of agricultural modernization, as it contributes to the improvement of agricultural technology and the rapid transformation of agricultural development. However, research on the connection between agricultural mechanization and farmers' health status is scarce. Thus, using the 2018 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Survey (CHARLS) data, this study explored how agricultural mechanization can affect farmers' health. OLS and 2SLS models were used for the study's analysis. Furthermore, we used a PSM model to check the robustness of our analysis. The findings showed that: (1) the current state of agricultural mechanization in western China harms the health of rural residents; (2) agricultural mechanization can mitigate the adverse effects on health by increasing farmers' living expenditure and improving their living environment; and (3) agricultural mechanization's effects on farmers' health are regionally and income-heterogeneous. Agricultural mechanization has a more significant impact on health in Tibetan areas and high-income regions. It has an almost minimal effect in non-Tibetan and low-income areas. This paper suggests approaches that can be used to encourage the rational development of agricultural mechanization and improve rural populations' health.

Dip-In Photoresist for Photoinhibited Two-Photon Lithography to Realize High-Precision Direct Laser Writing on Wafer.

For decades, photoinhibited two-photon lithography (PI-TPL) has been continually developed and applied into versatile nanofabrication. However, ultrahigh precision fabrication on wafer by PI-TPL remains challenging, due to the lack of a refractive index (n) matched photoresist (Rim-P) with effective photoinhibition capacity for dip-in mode. In this paper, various Rim-P are developed and then screened for their applications in PI-TPL. In addition, different lithography methods (in terms of oil-mode and dip-in mode) are analyzed by use of optical simulations combined with experiments. Remarkably, one type of Rim-P (n = 1.518) shows effective photoinhibition capacity, which represents an outstanding breakthrough in the field of PI-TPL. In contrast to photoresist with an unsuitable refractive index, optical aberrations are almost completely eliminated in the dip-in mode by using the Rim-P. Consequently, features with a minimum critical dimension as small as 39 nm are successfully achieved on wafer by dip-in PI-TPL, which paves the way for subdiffraction silicon-based chip manufacturing by PI-TPL. Moreover, through a combination of the Rim-P and dip-in mode, the ability to achieve tall and high-precision three-dimensional nanostructures is no longer problematic.

Fabrication of Chiral 3D Microstructure Using Tightly Focused Multiramp Helico-Conical Optical Beams.

Beams with optical vortices are widely used in various fields, including optical communication, optical manipulation and trapping, and, especially in recent years, in the processing of nanoscale structures. However, circular vortex beams are difficult to use for the processing of chiral micro and nanostructures. This paper introduces a multiramp helical-conical beam that can produce a three-dimensional spiral light field in a tightly focused system. Using this spiral light beam and the two-photon direct writing technique, micro-nano structures with chiral characteristics in space can be directly written under a single exposure. The fabrication efficiency is more than 20 times higher than the conventional point-by-point writing strategy. The tightly focused properties of the light field were utilized to analyze the field-dependent properties of the micro-nano structure, such as the number of multiramp mixed screw-edge dislocations. Our results enrich the means of two-photon polymerization technology and provide a simple and stable way for the micromachining of chiral microstructures, which may have a wide range of applications in optical tweezers, optical communications, and metasurfaces.