Long-read de novo genome assembly of Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta).

BACKGROUND: The family Batrachoididae are a group of ecologically important teleost fishes with unique life histories, behavior, and physiology that has made them popular model organisms. Batrachoididae remain understudied in the realm of genomics, with only four reference genome assemblies available for the family, with three being highly fragmented and not up to current assembly standards. Among these is the Gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta, a model organism for serotonin physiology which has recently been bred in captivity. RESULTS: Here we present a new, de novo genome and transcriptome assemblies for the Gulf toadfish using PacBio long read technology. The genome size of the final assembly is 2.1 gigabases, which is among the largest teleost genomes. This new assembly improves significantly upon the currently available reference for Opsanus beta with a final scaffold count of 62, of which 23 are chromosome scale, an N50 of 98,402,768, and a BUSCO completeness score of 97.3%. Annotation with ab initio and transcriptome-based methods generated 41,076 gene models. The genome is highly repetitive, with ~ 70% of the genome composed of simple repeats and transposable elements. Satellite DNA analysis identified potential telomeric and centromeric regions. CONCLUSIONS: This improved assembly represents a valuable resource for future research using this important model organism and to teleost genomics more broadly.

Annotated genome and transcriptome of the endangered Caribbean mountainous star coral (Orbicella faveolata) using PacBio long-read sequencing.

Long-read sequencing is revolutionizing de-novo genome assemblies, with continued advancements making it more readily available for previously understudied, non-model organisms. Stony corals are one such example, with long-read de-novo genome assemblies now starting to be publicly available, opening the door for a wide array of 'omics-based research. Here we present a new de-novo genome assembly for the endangered Caribbean star coral, Orbicella faveolata, using PacBio circular consensus reads. Our genome assembly improved the contiguity (51 versus 1,933 contigs) and complete and single copy BUSCO orthologs (93.6% versus 85.3%, database metazoa_odb10), compared to the currently available reference genome generated using short-read methodologies. Our new de-novo assembled genome also showed comparable quality metrics to other coral long-read genomes. Telomeric repeat analysis identified putative chromosomes in our scaffolded assembly, with these repeats at either one, or both ends, of scaffolded contigs. We identified 32,172 protein coding genes in our assembly through use of long-read RNA sequencing (ISO-seq) of additional O. faveolata fragments exposed to a range of abiotic and biotic treatments, and publicly available short-read RNA-seq data. With anthropogenic influences heavily affecting O. faveolata, as well as its increasing incorporation into reef restoration activities, this updated genome resource can be used for population genomics and other 'omics analyses to aid in the conservation of this species.

Imaging diagnosis: CT characteristics of a retrobulbar hibernoma in a dog.

A 12-year-old female spayed Beagle was referred for investigation of exophthalmos. CT revealed a well-defined, retrobulbar mass causing rostro-dorsal displacement of the left globe. The mass had a mildly heterogeneous precontrast soft tissue attenuation with mild heterogeneous enhancement following iohexol administration. The mass was surgically removed en bloc with an orbital exenteration. Histopathology confirmed the mass to be a hibernoma, a benign tumor of brown adipose tissue. Hibernomas have CT characteristics consistent with both benign and malignant adipose tumors and may be underrecognized by radiologists.

Computed tomographic imaging of a maxillary sinus mucocele in an 8-year-old French Bulldog.

An 8-year-old male neutered French Bulldog was referred for continued nasal dyspnea following a staphylectomy revision performed one month prior to presentation. The patient had a prior history of skin allergies and underwent brachycephalic airway surgery performed at one year of age. Computed tomography (CT) revealed an osseous-encased, cystic mass arising from the right maxillary sinus. Surgical biopsies were performed and a mucocele with sinusitis and glandular hyperplasia was diagnosed. Based on our systematic review of the literature, maxillary sinus mucocele has not been reported in the dog and should be among the differentials for sinus cystic masses.

Extruded gallbladder mucoceles have characteristic ultrasonographic features and extensive migratory capacity in dogs.

Limited information is available on the ultrasonographic characteristics of extruded gallbladder mucoceles. The objective of this retrospective case series study was to describe the ultrasonographic features of extruded gallbladder mucoceles in a group of dogs. Medical records of four veterinary centers were searched between June 2010 and January 2018 for all dogs with a suspected extruded gallbladder mucocele based on abdominal ultrasound. Seven client-owned dogs met the inclusion criteria. All seven dogs had a discrete, heteroechoic, multilayered, stellate, or striated mass within the peritoneal cavity. Blood flow was not present in these structures. Four of these structures were identified in the caudal abdomen. In five cases, the gallbladder lumen was filled with material similar in appearance to the free-floating peritoneal mass. Four cases were confirmed surgically and one case was confirmed at necropsy. Histopathology of the gallbladder wall was evaluated in all surgical cases and analysis of the free-floating material was performed in one of the four cases. Extruded gallbladder mucoceles have common imaging characteristics that may be helpful in establishing a presumptive diagnosis. Additionally, these structures may have extensive migratory capacity. The results of the study justify the recommendation for exploration of the entire abdomen during cholecystectomy for gallbladder mucocele removal.

Comparison of two fat-suppressed magnetic resonance imaging pulse sequences to standard t2-weighted images for brain parenchymal contrast and lesion detection in dogs with inflammatory intracranial disease.

T2-weighted (T2w) sequences are commonly relied upon in magnetic resonance imaging protocols for the detection of brain lesions in dogs. Previously, the effect of fluid suppression via fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) has been compared to T2-weighting with mixed results. Short tau inversion recovery (STIR) has been reported to increase the detection of some CNS lesions in people. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effect of fat suppression on brain parenchymal contrast resolution and lesion detection in dogs. We compared three sequences: T2w images, STIR, and T2w FLAIR with chemical fat suppression (T2-FLAIR-FS) in dogs with meningoencephalitis. Dogs with meningoencephalitis and dogs with idiopathic epilepsy were retrospectively identified and anonymized. Evaluators recorded the presence or absence of lesions within 12 predetermined brain regions on randomized sequences, viewing and scoring each sequence individually. Additionally, signal-to-noise ratios, contrast-to-noise ratios, and relative contrast (RC) were measured in a reference population. Short tau inversion recovery sequences had the highest RC between gray and white matter. While descriptively more lesions were identified by evaluators on T2-FLAIR-FS images, there was no statistical difference in the relative sensitivity of lesion detection between the sequences. Nor was there a statistical difference in false lesion detection within our reference population. Short tau inversion recovery may be favored for enhanced anatomic contrast depiction in brain imaging. No benefit of the inclusion of a fat-suppressed T2-FLAIR sequence was found.

Comparison between noncontrast computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for detection and characterization of thoracolumbar myelopathy caused by intervertebral disk herniation in dogs.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) are commonly used to evaluate dogs with thoracolumbar myelopathy; however, relative diagnostic sensitivities for these two modalities have not been previously reported. The purpose of this prospective study was to compare diagnostic sensitivity and observer agreement for MRI and CT in a group of dogs with thoracolumbar myelopathy due to surgically confirmed intervertebral disk herniation (IVDH). All included dogs had magnetic resonance (MR) imaging followed by noncontrast CT using standardized protocols. Three experienced observers interpreted each imaging study independently without knowledge of clinical or surgical findings. The operating surgeon was aware of MR findings but not CT findings at the time surgical findings were recorded. Forty-four dogs met the inclusion criteria. The sensitivity of CT was 88.6% (79.5%-94.2%) and of MR was 98.5% (95% confidence interval, 94.1%-99.7%) for diagnosis of intervertebral disk herniation. Specificity was not calculated, as all dogs had IVDH at surgery. Magnetic resonance imaging was more accurate than CT for identifying the site of intervertebral disk herniation-associated spinal cord compression and differentiating disk extrusion vs. protrusion. Computed tomography was less accurate for lesion localization in per acute cases, as well as for chondrodystrophic, female, older and smaller (<7 kg) dogs. Inter-rater agreement was good for lesion lateralization for both MR and CT (κ = 0.687, 95% CI = 0.552, 0.822, P = 0.002, and κ = 0.692, 95% CI = 0.542, 0.842, P = 0.003). Findings from the current study indicated that MR imaging was more sensitive and accurate than noncontrast CT for diagnosis and characterization of thoracolumbar myelopathy due to IVDH in dogs.

Evaluation of standard magnetic resonance characteristics used to differentiate neoplastic, inflammatory, and vascular brain lesions in dogs.

Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging characteristics are commonly used to help predict intracranial disease categories in dogs, however, few large studies have objectively evaluated these characteristics. The purpose of this retrospective study was to evaluate MR characteristics that have been used to differentiate neoplastic, inflammatory, and vascular intracranial diseases in a large, multi-institutional population of dogs. Medical records from three veterinary teaching hospitals were searched over a 6-year period for dogs that had diagnostic quality brain MR scans and histologically confirmed intracranial disease. Three examiners who were unaware of histologic diagnosis independently evaluated 19 MR lesion characteristics totaling 57 possible responses. A total of 75 dogs with histologically confirmed intracranial disease were included in analyses: 51 with neoplasia, 18 with inflammatory disease, and six with cerebrovascular disease. Only strong contrast enhancement was more common in neoplasia than other disease categories. A multivariable statistical model suggested that extra-axial origin, T2-FLAIR mixed intensity, and defined lesion margins were also predictive of neoplasia. Meningeal enhancement, irregular lesion shape, and multifocal location distinguished inflammatory diseases from the other disease categories. No MR characteristics distinguished vascular lesions and these appeared most similar to neoplasia. These results differed from a previous report describing seven MR characteristics that were predictive of neoplasia in dogs and cats. Findings from the current study indicated that the high performance of MR for diagnosing canine intracranial diseases might be due to evaluator recognition of combinations of MR characteristics vs. relying on any one MR characteristic alone.

Thoracic and lumbar spinal cord diffusion tensor imaging in dogs.

PURPOSE: To analyze four clinically applicable diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) protocols (two each in the transverse and sagittal planes) in the normal dog. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Seven healthy Dachshund dogs were scanned with four DTI protocols. Within each plane, identical spatial resolution was used while the number of diffusion-encoding directions and averages varied. Agreement of measured fractional anisotropy (FA) and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) was analyzed with Bland-Altman methods, subjective image quality within each plane was compared, and FA and ADC were explored as a function of anatomic location. RESULTS: There was good agreement in FA and ADC values within each plane. FA had the smallest bias and most precision. No difference was detected in subjective image quality within each plane. FA and ADC were slightly higher cranial to the lumbar intumescence compared to within it. CONCLUSION: DTI is a promising tool in the assessment of spinal cord injury (SCI) in the study of dogs with intervertebral disk herniation as a preclinical model of human SCI.

An Evasive Case of Gonococcal Endocarditis.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections in the United States, and disseminated infection can lead to a variety of complications. This includes the less common, but potentially life-threatening complication of gonococcal endocarditis. The authors report a case of a formerly incarcerated middle-aged man with a three-day history of dyspnea on exertion, fever, headache, and productive cough with green sputum. He endorsed a several-week history of an untreated right molar infection but denied any history of genitourinary symptoms. Given concerns for heart failure, a transthoracic echocardiogram was obtained showing mitral regurgitation with a mass on the mitral valve leaflet, as well as a smaller aortic valve mass that was subsequently confirmed with a transesophageal echocardiogram. Initially, the patient was transferred from an outside hospital (OSH), and discrepancies were noted between the blood cultures obtained at the OSH and a private lab. Given that the patient was already started on antibiotics prior to transfer, a Karius assay was sent and returned positive for N. gonorrhoeae. He was started on empiric antibiotic coverage before ultimately undergoing mitral valve replacement with a mosaic valve. The patient completed six weeks of intravenous ceftriaxone with complete resolution of symptoms. This case demonstrates a rare incident of N. gonorrhoeae bacteremia without any common symptoms causing endocarditis and valvular destruction. Timely diagnosis, a multidisciplinary approach, and treatment of gonococcal endocarditis led to positive outcomes in this case.

Portable Sleep Study Device Versus Polysomnography: A Meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an updated comparison of apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), oxygen desaturation index (ODI), respiratory disturbance index (RDI), oxygen saturation (O2 sat), and lowest oxyhemoglobin saturation (LSAT) measured by portable sleep study devices (PSSDs) compared to polysomnography (PSG). DATA SOURCES: Primary studies were identified through PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, and Cochrane. REVIEW METHODS: A systematic review was performed by searching databases from inception through August 2021. Only studies examining simultaneous monitoring of a PSSD and PSG were included.  Respiratory indices AHI, ODI, RDI, O2 sat, and LSAT was collected Meta-correlations and meta-regressions were conducted to compare sleep variable measurements between PSSD and PSG. RESULTS: A total of 24 studies (N = 1644 patients) were included. The mean age was 49.5 ± 12.0 (range = 13-92), mean body mass index (BMI) was 30.4 ± 5.7 (range = 17-87), and 69.4% were male. Meta-correlation showed significant associations between PSSD and PSG for AHI (n = 655, r = .888; p < .001), ODI (n = 241, r = .942; p < .001), RDI (n = 313, r = .832; p < .001), O2 sat (n = 171, r = .858; p < .001), and LSAT (n = 197, r = .930; p < .001). Meta-regressions indicated significant predictive correlations for AHI (n = 655; r = .96; p < .001), ODI (n = 740; r = .75; p = .031), RDI (n = 197; r = .99; p = .005), and LSAT (n = 197; r = .85; p = .030), but not for O2 sat (n = 171; r = .31; p = .692). CONCLUSIONS: Respiratory indices correlate strongly between PSSD and PSG, which is further supported by meta-regressions results. PSSD might be a valuable cost and time-saving OSA screening tool.

Different disease inoculations cause common responses of the host immune system and prokaryotic component of the microbiome in Acropora palmata.

Reef-building corals contain a complex consortium of organisms, a holobiont, which responds dynamically to disease, making pathogen identification difficult. While coral transcriptomics and microbiome communities have previously been characterized, similarities and differences in their responses to different pathogenic sources has not yet been assessed. In this study, we inoculated four genets of the Caribbean branching coral Acropora palmata with a known coral pathogen (Serratia marcescens) and white band disease. We then characterized the coral's transcriptomic and prokaryotic microbiomes' (prokaryiome) responses to the disease inoculations, as well as how these responses were affected by a short-term heat stress prior to disease inoculation. We found strong commonality in both the transcriptomic and prokaryiomes responses, regardless of disease inoculation. Differences, however, were observed between inoculated corals that either remained healthy or developed active disease signs. Transcriptomic co-expression analysis identified that corals inoculated with disease increased gene expression of immune, wound healing, and fatty acid metabolic processes. Co-abundance analysis of the prokaryiome identified sets of both healthy-and-disease-state bacteria, while co-expression analysis of the prokaryiomes' inferred metagenomic function revealed infected corals' prokaryiomes shifted from free-living to biofilm states, as well as increasing metabolic processes. The short-term heat stress did not increase disease susceptibility for any of the four genets with any of the disease inoculations, and there was only a weak effect captured in the coral hosts' transcriptomic and prokaryiomes response. Genet identity, however, was a major driver of the transcriptomic variance, primarily due to differences in baseline immune gene expression. Despite genotypic differences in baseline gene expression, we have identified a common response for components of the coral holobiont to different disease inoculations. This work has identified genes and prokaryiome members that can be focused on for future coral disease work, specifically, putative disease diagnostic tools.

Cytologic diagnosis of disseminated histoplasmosis in the wall of the urinary bladder of a cat.

A 10 yr old domestic longhair presented with a 2.5 mo history of recurrent hematuria. Abdominal ultrasound examination demonstrated a thickened urinary bladder, abdominal lymphadenopathy, and a thickened and rounded spleen. Cytologic examination of fine-needle aspirate samples revealed Histoplasma capsulatum organisms in the urinary bladder wall and spleen. The cat was treated with itraconazole (10 mg/kg per os q 24 hr for 2.5 wk). The cat was euthanized after 19 days of treatment because of lack of improvement. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first documented case of feline disseminated histoplasmosis diagnosed in the urinary bladder wall.

Comparison of intraosseous and peripheral venous fluid dynamics in the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii).

The efficacy of intraosseous catheterization has not been described previously in the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii). The goal of this study was to describe and compare the efficacy of four intraosseous catheter sites (humerus, femur, plastocarapacial junction [bridge], and gular region of the plastron) to jugular catheterization. Five adult tortoises were catheterized in each of the sites at least once. The distribution of a bolus injection of radiopharmaceutical (technetium-99m-diethylenetriaminepentaacidic acid [99mTc -DTPA]) was monitored via gamma camera over 2-min periods at five time intervals over 24 min. Compared to jugular catheterization, the humerus and femur sites provided the next best vascular access, with 84.4 and 61.8% of activity reaching the systemic circulation by 7 min, respectively. The bridge and gular catheter sites were less effective with only 41.9 and 40.8% systemic activity, respectively. Intraosseous catheters were no more technically difficult to place than jugular catheters and were less commonly dislodged, making them a viable option for vascular access in tortoises.

Accuracy of conventional radiography and computed tomography in predicting implant position in relation to the vertebral canal in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the accuracy of radiography and computed tomography (CT) in predicting implant position in relation to the vertebral canal in the cervical and thoracolumbar vertebral column. STUDY DESIGN: In vitro imaging and anatomic study. ANIMALS: Medium-sized canine cadaver vertebral columns (n=12). METHODS: Steinmann pins were inserted into cervical and thoracolumbar vertebrae based on established landmarks but without predetermination of vertebral canal violation. Radiographs and CT images were obtained and evaluated by 6 individuals. A random subset of pins was evaluated for ability to distinguish left from right pins on radiographs. The ability to correctly identify vertebral canal penetration for all pins was assessed both on radiographs and CT. Spines were then anatomically prepared and visual examination of pin penetration into the canal served as the gold standard. RESULTS: Left/right accuracy was 93.1%. Overall sensitivity of radiographs and CT to detect vertebral canal penetration by an implant were significantly different and estimated as 50.7% and 93.4%, respectively (P<.0001). Sensitivity was significantly higher for complete versus partial penetration and for radiologists compared with nonradiologists for both imaging modalities. Overall specificity of radiographs and CT to detect vertebral canal penetration was 82.9% and 86.4%, respectively (P=.049). CONCLUSIONS: CT was superior to radiographic assessment and is the recommended imaging modality to assess penetration into the vertebral canal. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: CT is significantly more accurate in identifying vertebral canal violation by Steinmann pins and should be performed postoperatively to assess implant position.

Odors: from chemical structures to gaseous plumes.

We are immersed within an odorous sea of chemical currents that we parse into individual odors with complex structures. Odors have been posited as determined by the structural relation between the molecules that compose the chemical compounds and their interactions with the receptor site. But, naturally occurring smells are parsed from gaseous odor plumes. To give a comprehensive account of the nature of odors the chemosciences must account for these large distributed entities as well. We offer a focused review of what is known about the perception of odor plumes for olfactory navigation and tracking, which we then connect to what is known about the role odorants play as properties of the plume in determining odor identity with respect to odor quality. We end by motivating our central claim that more research needs to be conducted on the role that odorants play within the odor plume in determining odor identity.

Innate immune gene expression in Acropora palmata is consistent despite variance in yearly disease events.

Coral disease outbreaks are expected to increase in prevalence, frequency and severity due to climate change and other anthropogenic stressors. This is especially worrying for the Caribbean branching coral Acropora palmata which has already seen an 80% decrease in cover primarily due to disease. Despite the importance of this keystone species, there has yet to be a characterization of its transcriptomic response to disease exposure. In this study we provide the first transcriptomic analysis of 12 A. palmata genotypes and their symbiont Symbiodiniaceae exposed to disease in 2016 and 2017. Year was the primary driver of gene expression variance for A. palmata and the Symbiodiniaceae. We hypothesize that lower expression of ribosomal genes in the coral, and higher expression of transmembrane ion transport genes in the Symbiodiniaceae indicate that a compensation or dysbiosis may be occurring between host and symbiont. Disease response was the second driver of gene expression variance for A. palmata and included a core set of 422 genes that were significantly differentially expressed. Of these, 2 genes (a predicted cyclin-dependent kinase 11b and aspartate 1-decarboxylase) showed negative Log2 fold changes in corals showing transmission of disease, and positive Log2 fold changes in corals showing no transmission of disease, indicating that these may be important in disease resistance. Co-expression analysis identified two modules positively correlated to disease exposure, one enriched for lipid biosynthesis genes, and the other enriched in innate immune genes. The hub gene in the immune module was identified as D-amino acid oxidase, a gene implicated in phagocytosis and microbiome homeostasis. The role of D-amino acid oxidase in coral immunity has not been characterized but could be an important enzyme for responding to disease. Our results indicate that A. palmata mounts a core immune response to disease exposure despite differences in the disease type and virulence between 2016 and 2017. These identified genes may be important for future biomarker development in this Caribbean keystone species.

Broadly reactive pan-paramyxovirus reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and sequence analysis for the detection of Canine distemper virus in a case of canine meningoencephalitis of unknown etiology.

Despite the immunologic protection associated with routine vaccination protocols, Canine distemper virus (CDV) remains an important pathogen of dogs. Antemortem diagnosis of systemic CDV infection may be made by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and/or immunohistochemical testing for CDV antigen; central nervous system infection often requires postmortem confirmation via histopathology and immunohistochemistry. An 8-month-old intact male French Bulldog previously vaccinated for CDV presented with multifocal neurologic signs. Based on clinical and postmortem findings, the dog's disease was categorized as a meningoencephalitis of unknown etiology. Broadly reactive, pan-paramyxovirus RT-PCR using consensus-degenerate hybrid oligonucleotide primers, combined with sequence analysis, identified CDV amplicons in the dog's brain. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the presence of CDV antigens, and a specific CDV RT-PCR based on the phosphoprotein gene identified a wild-type versus vaccinal virus strain. This case illustrates the utility of broadly reactive PCR and sequence analysis for the identification of pathogens in diseases with unknown etiology.

Subchondral bone density and cartilage degeneration patterns in osteoarthritic metacarpal condyles of horses.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate and correlate patterns of subchondral bone density and articular cartilage degeneration (derived by use of gross, histologic, and computed tomographic [CT] examinations) in equine third metacarpal condyles with and without osteoarthritis. SAMPLE POPULATION: 8 metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints (n = 4 horses) without osteoarthritis and 6 osteoarthritis-affected MCP joints (4). PROCEDURES: Horses were euthanized. The third metacarpal condyles of the joints were examined grossly and via CT (3 slice images/condyle). For 6 condylar zones, mean bone density and pattern of density distribution were determined. Data for osteoarthritis-affected and control joints were compared. Histomorphometric point count analyses identified areas of bone density for comparison with CT density measurements. RESULTS: Osteoarthritis-affected condyles had heterogeneous subchondral bone with focal resorptive lesions and patterned sclerosis, whereas control condyles had symmetric bone density distribution. In osteoarthritis-affected condyles, bone density determined via gray scale image density analysis was greater (dorsal and medial pattern), compared with control condyles, and differed among zones because of resorption and sclerosis. With regard to bone density in osteoarthritis-affected condyles, histologic findings correlated with CT images, and bone lesions were significantly correlated with cartilage lesions. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In horses, heterogeneous distribution and greater subchondral bone density were characteristic of osteoarthritis-affected condyles, compared with control condyles. Subchondral bone lesions correlated with overlying cartilage lesions in osteoarthritis-affected MCP joints. Identification of CT image characteristics appears to predict the presence of a cartilage lesion in MCP joints of horses with osteoarthritis.

Smelling phenomenal.

Qualitative-consciousness arises at the sensory level of olfactory processing and pervades our experience of smells to the extent that qualitative character is maintained whenever we are aware of undergoing an olfactory experience. Building upon the distinction between Access and Phenomenal Consciousness the paper offers a nuanced distinction between Awareness and Qualitative-consciousness that is applicable to olfaction in a manner that is conceptual precise and empirically viable. Mounting empirical research is offered substantiating the applicability of the distinction to olfaction and showing that olfactory qualitative-consciousness can occur without awareness, but any olfactory state that we are aware of being in is always qualitative. Evidence that olfactory sensory states have a qualitatively character in the absence of awareness derives from research on mate selection, the selection of social preference for social interaction and acquaintances, as well as the role of olfactory deficits in causing affective disorders. Furthermore, the conservation of secondary processing measures of olfactory valence during olfactory imagery experiments provides verification that olfactory awareness is always qualitatively conscious-all olfactory consciousness smells phenomenal.