Blinatumomab is associated with better post-transplant outcome than chemotherapy in children with high-risk first-relapse B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia irrespective of the conditioning regimen.

Not available.

Approaches for bridging therapy prior to chimeric antigen receptor T cells for relapsed/refractory acute lymphoblastic B-lineage leukaemia in children and young adults.

The ongoing development of immunotherapies, including chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, has revolutionized cancer treatment. In paediatric relapsed/refractory B-lineage acute leukaemia antiCD19-CARs induced impressive initial response rates, with event-free survival plateauing at 30-50% in long-term follow-up data. During the interval between diagnosis of relapse or refractoriness and CAR T cell infusion, patients require a bridging therapy. To date, this therapy has consisted of highly variable approaches based on local experience. Here, in an European collaborative effort of paediatric and adult haematologists, we summarise current knowledge with the aim of establishing a guidance for bridging therapy. This includes treatment strategies for different patient subgroups, the advantages and disadvantages of low- and highintensity regimens, and the potential impact of bridging therapy on outcome after CAR T cell infusion. This guidance is a step towards a cross-institutional harmonization of bridging therapy, including personalized approaches. This will allow better comparability of clinical data and increase the level of evidence for the treatment of children and young adults with relapsed/refractory B-lineage ALL until CAR T cell infusion.

Real-world data suggest effectiveness of the allogeneic mesenchymal stromal cells preparation MSC-FFM in ruxolitinib-refractory acute graft-versus-host disease.

BACKGROUND: Patients with steroid-refractory acute graft-versus-host disease (aGvHD) not tolerating/responding to ruxolitinib (RR-aGvHD) have a dismal prognosis. METHODS: We retrospectively assessed real-world outcomes of RR-aGvHD treated with the random-donor allogeneic MSC preparation MSC-FFM, available via Hospital Exemption in Germany. MSC-FFM is provided as frozen cell dispersion for administration as i.v. infusion immediately after thawing, at a recommended dose of 1-2 million MSCs/kg body weight in 4 once-weekly doses. 156 patients, 33 thereof children, received MSC-FFM; 5% had Grade II, 40% had Grade III, and 54% had Grade IV aGvHD. Median (range) number of prior therapies was 4 (1-10) in adults and 7 (2-11) in children. RESULTS: The safety profile of MSC-FFM was consistent with previous reports for MSC therapies in general and MSC-FFM specifically. The overall response rate at Day 28 was 46% (95% confidence interval [CI] 36-55%) in adults and 64% (45-80%) in children; most responses were durable. Probability of overall survival at 6, 12 and 24 months was 47% (38-56%), 35% (27-44%) and 30% (22-39%) for adults, and 59% (40-74%), 42% (24-58%) and 35% (19-53%) for children, respectively (whole cohort: median OS 5.8 months). CONCLUSION: A recent real-world analysis of outcomes for 64 adult RR-aGvHD patients not treated with MSCs reports survival of 20%, 16% and 10% beyond 6, 12 and 24 months, respectively (median 28 days). Our data thus suggest effectiveness of MSC-FFM in RR-aGvHD.

Subclonal NT5C2 mutations are associated with poor outcomes after relapse of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Activating mutations in cytosolic 5'-nucleotidase II (NT5C2) are considered to drive relapse formation in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) by conferring purine analog resistance. To examine the clinical effects of NT5C2 mutations in relapsed ALL, we analyzed NT5C2 in 455 relapsed B-cell precursor ALL patients treated within the ALL-REZ BFM 2002 relapse trial using sequencing and sensitive allele-specific real-time polymerase chain reaction. We detected 110 NT5C2 mutations in 75 (16.5%) of 455 B-cell precursor ALL relapses. Two-thirds of relapses harbored subclonal mutations and only one-third harbored clonal mutations. Event-free survival after relapse was inferior in patients with relapses with clonal and subclonal NT5C2 mutations compared with those without (19% and 25% vs 53%, P < .001). However, subclonal, but not clonal, NT5C2 mutations were associated with reduced event-free survival in multivariable analysis (hazard ratio, 1.89; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-2.69; P = .001) and with an increased rate of nonresponse to relapse treatment (subclonal 32%, clonal 12%, wild type 9%, P < .001). Nevertheless, 27 (82%) of 33 subclonal NT5C2 mutations became undetectable at the time of nonresponse or second relapse, and in 10 (71%) of 14 patients subclonal NT5C2 mutations were undetectable already after relapse induction treatment. These results show that subclonal NT5C2 mutations define relapses associated with high risk of treatment failure in patients and at the same time emphasize that their role in outcome is complex and goes beyond mutant NT5C2 acting as a targetable driver during relapse progression. Sensitive, prospective identification of NT5C2 mutations is warranted to improve the understanding and treatment of this aggressive ALL relapse subtype.

Total body irradiation as part of conditioning regimens in childhood leukemia-long-term outcome, toxicity, and secondary malignancies.

BACKGROUND: Total body irradiation (TBI) is an established part of conditioning regimens prior to stem cell transplantation in childhood leukemia but is associated with long-term toxicity. We retrospectively analyzed survival, long-term toxicity, and secondary malignancies in a pooled cohort of pediatric patients (pts.) treated with the same TBI regimen. METHODS: Analyzed were 109 pts. treated between September 1996 and November 2015. Conditioning treatment according to EBMT guidelines and the ALL SCTped 2012 FORUM trial consisted of chemotherapy (CT) and TBI with 2 Gy b.i.d. on 3 consecutive days to a total dose of 12 Gy. Median follow-up was 97.9 months (2-228 months). RESULTS: Overall survival (OS) in our cohort at 2, 5, and 10 years was 86.1, 75.5, and 63.0%, respectively. Median survival was not reached. Long-term toxicity developed in 47 pts. After chronically abnormal liver and kidney parameters in 31 and 7 pts., respectively, growth retardation was the most frequent finding as seen in 13 pts. Secondary malignancies were rare (n = 3). CONCLUSION: TBI-containing conditioning regimens in pediatric stem cell transplantation (SCT) are highly effective. Efforts to replace TBI- with CT-containing regimens have only been successful in subgroups of pts. Although we could show long-term toxicity in 43% of pts., overall survival was 63% at 10 years. Still, long-term effects such as growth retardation can permanently impact the pts.' quality of life and functioning. Along with new substances, efforts should be undertaken to optimize TBI techniques and accompany the treatment by systematic follow-up programs beyond 5 years to improve detection of rare events.

Pre-existing antibodies against polyethylene glycol reduce asparaginase activities on first administration of pegylated E. coli asparaginase in children with acute lymphocytic leukemia.

Antibodies against polyethylene glycol (PEG) in healthy subjects raise concerns about the efficacy of pegylated drugs. We evaluated the prevalence of antibodies against PEG among patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) prior to and/or immediately after their first dose of pegylated E.coli asparaginase (PEG-ASNase). Serum samples of 701 children, 673 with primary ALL, 28 with relapsed ALL, and 188 adults with primary ALL were analyzed for anti-PEG IgG and IgM. Measurements in 58 healthy infants served as reference to define cut-points for antibody-positive and -negative samples. Anti-PEG antibodies were detected in ALL patients prior the first PEG-ASNase with a prevalence of 13.9% (anti-PEG IgG) and 29.1% (anti-PEG IgM). After administration of PEG-ASNase the prevalence of anti-PEG antibodies decreased to 4.2% for anti-PEG IgG and to 4.5% for anti-PEG IgM. Pre-existing anti-PEG antibodies did not inhibit PEG-ASNase activity but significantly reduced PEGASNase activity levels in a concentration dependent manner. Although pre-existing anti-PEG antibodies did not boost, pre-existing anti-PEG IgG were significantly associated with firstexposure hypersensitivity reactions (CTCAE grade 2) (p.

Blinatumomab overcomes poor prognostic impact of measurable residual disease in pediatric high-risk first relapse B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Blinatumomab, a CD3/CD19 BiTE® (bispecific T cell engager) molecule, was superior to high-risk third course consolidation chemotherapy (HC3) in prolonging event-free survival (EFS) in children with high-risk first relapse B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). Here, we report results from a post hoc measurable residual disease (MRD) analysis of this phase 3 study (NCT02393859). PROCEDURE: Children >28 days and <18 years with high-risk first-relapse B-ALL in cytomorphological complete remission (M1 marrow, <5% blasts) or with M2 marrow (≥5% and <25% blasts) after induction and two cycles of high-risk consolidation chemotherapy (baseline) were enrolled in this trial. Patients received one cycle of blinatumomab (15 µg/m2 /day, 4 weeks, continuous intravenous infusion) or HC3. The primary endpoint was EFS. In this post hoc analysis, patients with MRD <10-4 by PCR were grouped as having positive but not quantifiable (pbnq) or undetectable disease. RESULTS: A higher proportion of patients with MRD <10-4 had undetectable versus pbnq disease after blinatumomab (day 29) than after HC3 (p = 0.0367). Of the 22 patients with MRD ≥10-4 at baseline who achieved MRD remission after blinatumomab, 20 (91%) achieved MRD <10-4 remission by day 15. Patients treated with blinatumomab had improved EFS and overall survival compared with those treated with HC3 independent of end-of-induction or baseline (end-of-second consolidation) MRD levels. CONCLUSIONS: Blinatumomab was more efficacious than HC3 regardless of MRD status before treatment. These data support the role of blinatumomab in inducing deep MRD remission, negating the poor prognostic value of MRD.

Blinatumomab in pediatric patients with relapsed/refractory B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

OBJECTIVE: Pediatric patients with relapsed or refractory acute lymphoblastic leukemia have a poor prognosis. We here assess the response rates, adverse events, and long-term follow-up of pediatric patients with relapsed/refractory acute lymphoblastic leukemia receiving blinatumomab. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of a single-center experience with blinatumomab in 38 patients over a period of 10 years. RESULTS: The median age at onset of therapy was 10 years (1-21 years). Seventy-one percent of patients had undergone at least one hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) prior to treatment with blinatumomab. We observed a response to blinatumomab in 13/38 patients (34%). The predominant side effect was febrile reactions, nearly half of the patients developed a cytokine release syndrome. Eight events of neurotoxicity were registered over the 78 cycles (15%). To date, nine patients (24%) are alive and in complete molecular remission. All survivors underwent haploidentical HSCT after treatment with blinatumomab. CONCLUSIONS: Despite heavy pretreatment of most of our patients, severe adverse events were rare and response rates encouraging. Blinatumomab is a valuable bridging salvage therapy for relapsed or refractory patients to a second or even third HSCT.

Effect of Blinatumomab vs Chemotherapy on Event-Free Survival Among Children With High-risk First-Relapse B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Blinatumomab is a CD3/CD19-directed bispecific T-cell engager molecule with efficacy in children with relapsed or refractory B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). Objective: To evaluate event-free survival in children with high-risk first-relapse B-ALL after a third consolidation course with blinatumomab vs consolidation chemotherapy before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this randomized phase 3 clinical trial, patients were enrolled November 2015 to July 2019 (data cutoff, July 17, 2019). Investigators at 47 centers in 13 countries enrolled children older than 28 days and younger than 18 years with high-risk first-relapse B-ALL in morphologic complete remission (M1 marrow, <5% blasts) or with M2 marrow (blasts ≥5% and <25%) at randomization. Intervention: Patients were randomized to receive 1 cycle of blinatumomab (n = 54; 15 µg/m2/d for 4 weeks, continuous intravenous infusion) or chemotherapy (n = 54) for the third consolidation. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary end point was event-free survival (events: relapse, death, second malignancy, or failure to achieve complete remission). The key secondary efficacy end point was overall survival. Other secondary end points included minimal residual disease remission and incidence of adverse events. Results: A total of 108 patients were randomized (median age, 5.0 years [interquartile range {IQR}, 4.0-10.5]; 51.9% girls; 97.2% M1 marrow) and all patients were included in the analysis. Enrollment was terminated early for benefit of blinatumomab in accordance with a prespecified stopping rule. After a median of 22.4 months of follow-up (IQR, 8.1-34.2), the incidence of events in the blinatumomab vs consolidation chemotherapy groups was 31% vs 57% (log-rank P < .001; hazard ratio [HR], 0.33 [95% CI, 0.18-0.61]). Deaths occurred in 8 patients (14.8%) in the blinatumomab group and 16 (29.6%) in the consolidation chemotherapy group. The overall survival HR was 0.43 (95% CI, 0.18-1.01). Minimal residual disease remission was observed in more patients in the blinatumomab vs consolidation chemotherapy group (90% [44/49] vs 54% [26/48]; difference, 35.6% [95% CI, 15.6%-52.5%]). No fatal adverse events were reported. In the blinatumomab vs consolidation chemotherapy group, the incidence of serious adverse events was 24.1% vs 43.1%, respectively, and the incidence of adverse events greater than or equal to grade 3 was 57.4% vs 82.4%. Adverse events leading to treatment discontinuation were reported in 2 patients in the blinatumomab group. Conclusions and Relevance: Among children with high-risk first-relapse B-ALL, treatment with 1 cycle of blinatumomab compared with standard intensive multidrug chemotherapy before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant resulted in an improved event-free survival at a median of 22.4 months of follow-up. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02393859.

Suppressors and activators of JAK-STAT signaling at diagnosis and relapse of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Down syndrome.

Children with Down syndrome (DS) are prone to development of high-risk B-cell precursor ALL (DS-ALL), which differs genetically from most sporadic pediatric ALLs. Increased expression of cytokine receptor-like factor 2 (CRLF2), the receptor to thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), characterizes about half of DS-ALLs and also a subgroup of sporadic "Philadelphia-like" ALLs. To understand the pathogenesis of relapsed DS-ALL, we performed integrative genomic analysis of 25 matched diagnosis-remission and -relapse DS-ALLs. We found that the CRLF2 rearrangements are early events during DS-ALL evolution and generally stable between diagnoses and relapse. Secondary activating signaling events in the JAK-STAT/RAS pathway were ubiquitous but highly redundant between diagnosis and relapse, suggesting that signaling is essential but that no specific mutations are "relapse driving." We further found that activated JAK2 may be naturally suppressed in 25% of CRLF2pos DS-ALLs by loss-of-function aberrations in USP9X, a deubiquitinase previously shown to stabilize the activated phosphorylated JAK2. Interrogation of large ALL genomic databases extended our findings up to 25% of CRLF2pos, Philadelphia-like ALLs. Pharmacological or genetic inhibition of USP9X, as well as treatment with low-dose ruxolitinib, enhanced the survival of pre-B ALL cells overexpressing mutated JAK2. Thus, somehow counterintuitive, we found that suppression of JAK-STAT "hypersignaling" may be beneficial to leukemic B-cell precursors. This finding and the reduction of JAK mutated clones at relapse suggest that the therapeutic effect of JAK specific inhibitors may be limited. Rather, combined signaling inhibitors or direct targeting of the TSLP receptor may be a useful therapeutic strategy for DS-ALL.

Aneuploidy in children with relapsed B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: clinical importance of detecting a hypodiploid origin of relapse.

Aneuploidy is common in paediatric B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). Specific subgroups, such as high hyperdiploidy (>50 chromosomes or DNA Index ≥1·16) and hypodiploidy (<45 chromosomes), predict outcome of patients after primary treatment. Whether aneuploidy has a prognostic value for relapsed disease is yet to be determined. Using DNA index and centromere screening by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification, we investigated aneuploidy in 413 children treated for first relapse of B-cell precursor ALL according to the ALL-REZ BFM 2002 protocol. Ten-year event-free survival of patients with high hyperdiploid relapses approached 70%, whereas it was only 40% in low hyperdiploid relapses. Three patients with apparent hyperdiploid relapse had TP53 mutations. In these cases, array-based allelotyping revealed a hypodiploid origin with absence of the hypodiploid founder clone (masked hypodiploidy). Collectively, patients with evident or masked hypodiploid relapses showed an extremely low event-free survival rate of 9%. Importantly, the current relapse risk stratification did not identify cases with masked hypodiploidy as high-risk patients, due to their favourable clinical presentation. In multivariate analysis, hypodiploidy proved to be an independent prognostic factor. This finding supports stratification of relapses with hypodiploid origin into high-risk arms in future trials or allocation of patients to alternative treatment approaches.

Ex vivo drug response profiling detects recurrent sensitivity patterns in drug-resistant acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Drug sensitivity and resistance testing on diagnostic leukemia samples should provide important functional information to guide actionable target and biomarker discovery. We provide proof of concept data by profiling 60 drugs on 68 acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) samples mostly from resistant disease in cocultures of bone marrow stromal cells. Patient-derived xenografts retained the original pattern of mutations found in the matched patient material. Stromal coculture did not prevent leukemia cell cycle activity, but a specific sensitivity profile to cell cycle-related drugs identified samples with higher cell proliferation both in vitro and in vivo as leukemia xenografts. In patients with refractory relapses, individual patterns of marked drug resistance and exceptional responses to new agents of immediate clinical relevance were detected. The BCL2-inhibitor venetoclax was highly active below 10 nM in B-cell precursor ALL (BCP-ALL) subsets, including MLL-AF4 and TCF3-HLF ALL, and in some T-cell ALLs (T-ALLs), predicting in vivo activity as a single agent and in combination with dexamethasone and vincristine. Unexpected sensitivity to dasatinib with half maximal inhibitory concentration values below 20 nM was detected in 2 independent T-ALL cohorts, which correlated with similar cytotoxic activity of the SRC inhibitor KX2-391 and inhibition of SRC phosphorylation. A patient with refractory T-ALL was treated with dasatinib on the basis of drug profiling information and achieved a 5-month remission. Thus, drug profiling captures disease-relevant features and unexpected sensitivity to relevant drugs, which warrants further exploration of this functional assay in the context of clinical trials to develop drug repurposing strategies for patients with urgent medical needs.

Asparagine levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated with pegylated-asparaginase in the induction phase of the AIEOP-BFM ALL 2009 study.

Asparagine levels in cerebrospinal fluid and serum asparaginase activity were monitored in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated with pegylated-asparaginase. The drug was given intravenously at a dose of 2,500 IU/m2 on days 12 and 26. Serum and cerebrospinal fluid samples obtained on days 33 and 45 were analyzed centrally. Since physiological levels of asparagine in the cerebrospinal fluid of children and adolescents are 4-10 µmol/L, in this study asparagine depletion was considered complete when the concentration of asparagine was ≤0.2 µmol/L, i.e. below the lower limit of quantification of the assay used. Over 24 months 736 patients (AIEOP n=245, BFM n=491) and 903 cerebrospinal fluid samples (n=686 on day 33 and n=217 on day 45) were available for analysis. Data were analyzed separately for the AIEOP and BFM cohorts and yielded superimposable results. Independently of serum asparaginase activity levels, cerebrospinal fluid asparagine levels were significantly reduced during the investigated study phase but only 28% of analyzed samples showed complete asparagine depletion while relevant levels, ≥1 µmol/L, were still detectable in around 23% of them. Complete cerebrospinal fluid asparagine depletion was found in around 5-6% and 33-37% of samples at serum asparaginase activity levels <100 and ≥ 1,500 IU/L, respectively. In this study cerebrospinal fluid asparagine levels were reduced during pegylated-asparaginase treatment, but complete depletion was only observed in a minority of patients. No clear threshold of serum pegylated-asparaginase activity level resulting in complete cerebrospinal fluid asparagine depletion was identified. The consistency of the results found in the two independent data sets strengthen the observations of this study. Details of the treatment are available in the European Clinical Trials Database at https://www.clin-icaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2007-004270-43/IT.

High sensitivity and clonal stability of the genomic fusion as single marker for response monitoring in ETV6-RUNX1-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Assessment of minimal residual disease (MRD) is an integral component for response monitoring and treatment stratification in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). We aimed to evaluate the genomic ETV6-RUNX1 fusion sites as a single marker for MRD quantification. PROCEDURE: In a representative, uniformly treated cohort of pediatric relapsed ALL patients (n = 52), ETV6-RUNX1 fusion sites were compared to the current gold standard, immunoglobulin/T-cell receptor (Ig/TCR) gene rearrangements. RESULTS: Primer/probe sets designed to ETV6-RUNX1 fusions achieved significantly more frequent a sensitivity and a quantitative range of at least 10-4 compared to the gold standard with 100% and 73% versus 76% and 47%, respectively. The breakpoint sequence was identical at diagnosis and relapse in all tested cases. There was a high degree of concordance between quantitative MRD results assessed using ETV6-RUNX1 and the highest Ig/TCR marker (Spearman's 0.899, P < .01) with differences >½ log-step in only 6% of patients. A high proportion of ETV6-RUNX1-positive ALL relapses (40%) in our cohort showed a poor response to induction treatment at relapse, and therefore had an indication for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, demonstrating the need of accurate identification of this subgroup. CONCLUSIONS: ETV6-RUNX1 fusion sites are highly sensitive and reliable MRD markers. Our data confirm that they are unaffected by clonal evolution and selection during front-line and second-line chemotherapy in contrast to Ig/TCR rearrangements, which require several markers per patient to compensate for the observed loss of target clones. In future studies, the genomic ETV6-RUNX1 fusion can be used as single MRD marker.

Low incidence of symptomatic osteonecrosis after allogeneic HSCT in children with high-risk or relapsed ALL - results of the ALL-SCT 2003 trial.

Osteonecrosis (ON) was prospectively assessed in 557 children and adolescents in the Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster Stem Cell Transplantation in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia 2003 trial. Median age at haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) was 10·3 years (range 0·5-26). Cumulative incidence of symptomatic ON (sON) was 9% at 5 years (standard deviation 1%), median time from HSCT to diagnosis of sON was 12·4 months (range 1-126). Multivariate analysis identified age at HSCT [10-15 years vs. <10 years: hazard ratio (HR) 3·73, P = 0·009; >15 years vs. <10 years: HR 5·46, P = 0·001], diagnosis of sON prior to HSCT and chronic graft-versus-host disease (yes versus no: HR 2·696, P = 0·015) as significant independent risk factors for the development of sON.

An effective modestly intensive re-induction regimen with bortezomib in relapsed or refractory paediatric acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

This trial explored the efficacy of re-induction chemotherapy including bortezomib in paediatric relapsed/refractory acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Patients were randomized 1:1 to bortezomib (1.3 mg/m2 /dose) administered early or late to a dexamethasone and vincristine backbone. Both groups did not differ regarding peripheral blast count on day 8, the primary endpoint. After cycle 1, 8 of 25 (32%) patients achieved complete remission with incomplete blood count recovery, 7 (28%) a partial remission and 10 had treatment failure. Most common grade 3-4 toxicities were febrile neutropenia (31%) and pain (17%). Bortezomib was safely combined with vincristine. Bortezomib rarely penetrated the cerebrospinal fluid.

Outcome of relapse after allogeneic HSCT in children with ALL enrolled in the ALL-SCT 2003/2007 trial.

Relapse remains the major cause of treatment failure in children with high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) undergoing allogeneic haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (allo-SCT). Prognosis is considered dismal but data on risk factors and outcome are lacking from prospective studies. We analysed 242 children with recurrence of ALL after first allo-SCT enrolled in the Berlin-Frankfurt-Munster (BFM) ALL-SCT-BFM 2003 and ALL-SCT-BFM international 2007 studies. Median time from allo-SCT to relapse was 7·7 months; median follow-up from relapse after allo-SCT until last follow-up was 3·4 years. The 3-year event-free survival (EFS) was 15% and overall survival (OS) was 20%. The main cause of death was disease progression or relapse (86·5%). The majority of children (48%) received salvage therapy without second allo-SCT, 26% of the children underwent a second allo-SCT and 25% received palliative treatment only. In multivariate analyses, age, site of relapse, time to relapse and type of salvage therapy were identified as significant prognostic factors for OS and EFS, whereas factors associated with first SCT were not statistically significant. Combined approaches incorporating novel immunotherapeutic treatment options and second allo-SCT hold promise to improve outcome in children with post allo-SCT relapse.

Dexamethasone vs prednisone in induction treatment of pediatric ALL: results of the randomized trial AIEOP-BFM ALL 2000.

Induction therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) traditionally includes prednisone; yet, dexamethasone may have higher antileukemic potency, leading to fewer relapses and improved survival. After a 7-day prednisone prephase, 3720 patients enrolled on trial Associazione Italiana di Ematologia e Oncologia Pediatrica and Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster (AIEOP-BFM) ALL 2000 were randomly selected to receive either dexamethasone (10 mg/m(2) per day) or prednisone (60 mg/m(2) per day) for 3 weeks plus tapering in induction. The 5-year cumulative incidence of relapse (± standard error) was 10.8 ± 0.7% in the dexamethasone and 15.6 ± 0.8% in the prednisone group (P < .0001), showing the largest effect on extramedullary relapses. The benefit of dexamethasone was partially counterbalanced by a significantly higher induction-related death rate (2.5% vs 0.9%, P = .00013), resulting in 5-year event-free survival rates of 83.9 ± 0.9% for dexamethasone and 80.8 ± 0.9% for prednisone (P = .024). No difference was seen in 5-year overall survival (OS) in the total cohort (dexamethasone, 90.3 ± 0.7%; prednisone, 90.5 ± 0.7%). Retrospective analyses of predefined subgroups revealed a significant survival benefit from dexamethasone only for patients with T-cell ALL and good response to the prednisone prephase (prednisone good-response [PGR]) (dexamethasone, 91.4 ± 2.4%; prednisone, 82.6 ± 3.2%; P = .036). In patients with precursor B-cell ALL and PGR, survival after relapse was found to be significantly worse if patients were previously assigned to the dexamethasone arm. We conclude that, for patients with PGR in the large subgroup of precursor B-cell ALL, dexamethasone especially reduced the incidence of better salvageable relapses, resulting in inferior survival after relapse. This explains the lack of benefit from dexamethasone in overall survival that we observed in the total cohort except in the subset of T-cell ALL patients with PGR. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov (BFM: NCT00430118, AIEOP: NCT00613457).

Neurotoxic side effects in children with refractory or relapsed T-cell malignancies treated with nelarabine based therapy.

The prognosis in children with refractory or relapsed (r/r) T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (T-ALL) or lymphoblastic lymphoma (T-LBL) is poor. Nelarabine (Ara-G) has successfully been used as salvage therapy in these children, but has been associated with significant, even fatal, neurotoxicities. We retrospectively analysed 52 patients with r/r T-ALL/T-LBL aged ≤19 years who were treated with Ara-G alone (n = 25) or in combination with cyclophosphamide and etoposide (n = 27). The majority of patients (45/52) received 1-2 cycles of Ara-G. Seventeen patients (32·7%) had refractory disease, 28 (53·8%) were in first relapse and 7 (13·5%) were in second relapse. A response to Ara-G was achieved in 20 patients and 15 (28·8%) were in remission at last follow-up. Twelve patients (23·1%) had neurotoxic adverse effects (neuro-AE) of any grade, of whom 7 (13·5%) developed neurotoxicity ≥ grade III. The most frequent neuro-AEs were peripheral motor neuropathy (19·2%), peripheral sensory neuropathy (11·5%) and seizures (9·6%). Three patients died of central neuro-AE after 1-2 cycles of combination therapy. Patients with neurotoxicity were significantly older (median 15·17 years) than those without (10·34 years, P = 0·017). No differences were observed between mono- and combination therapy concerning outcome and neuro-AE. The incidence of neuro-AE was not associated with concurrent intrathecal therapy or prior central nervous system irradiation.