What robot for tomorrow and what improvement can we expect?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The purpose of this review is to summarize the status of robotic surgery currently, contextualizing the advances and improvements we can expect in the immediate future. Robotics continues to demonstrate increased utility and expansion in medicine, particularly surgery. When coupled with the imminent expiry of Intuitive patents in the next few years, it is timely to consider what we can expect to see from new platforms; what new features might we anticipate and what technology will be available to enhance and improve patient care. RECENT FINDINGS: There really are no limits with the anticipated developments in the field of medical robotics. Multiple large companies and academic institutions continue to invest in design and production with the release of a number of platforms already having occurred, whereas others are to come in the near future. The main anticipated advances will be haptic feedback, decreased cost, improved theatre assimilation with open consoles permitting free communication and lower theatre footprint. The robot patient interface is to be enhanced with single port platforms in production with a better interface including haptic feedback. The addition of NOTES and smarter flexible robotics is the next key area of interest, whereas the introduction of technology with image guidance and networking where large data sets or connectivity permit increased clinical acumen to enhance decision making. SUMMARY: We are at the cusp of a tipping point as the intellectual property for the first major robotic system in surgery comes to an end. It is likely to be a period of great opportunity with enhanced surgery and patient outcomes through significant innovation, multiple platforms nearing dissemination, with various technological advances. We anticipate this will yield a great period of innovation and diversity. Will we see a truly automated robot soon; the Smart Tissue Autonomous Robots are the limit.

Update in Natural Orifice Translumenal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES).

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The recent developments and clinical applications of natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES)-procedures and technologies are going to be presented. RECENT FINDINGS: In experimental as well as clinical settings, NOTES-procedures are predominantly performed in hybrid technique. Current experimental studies focus on the implementation of new surgical approaches as well as on the training of procedures. One emphasis in the clinical application is transrectal and transanal interventions. Transanal total mesorectal excision is equivalent to laparoscopic procedures but with the benefit of an even less invasive access. Transvaginal cholecystectomy can achieve results that are comparable to surgeries that are performed with laparoscopic techniques alone. An analysis of the German NOTES-Register concerning appendectomies as well as the national performance of NOTES-interventions in Switzerland is presented. Apart from intraabdominal approaches, several centers proclaim transoral thyroidectomies and transoral mediastinoscopies. SUMMARY: NOTES-procedures are performed in animal experiments as well as in clinical setting although with less frequency. At this time, hybrid techniques using rigid instruments are mainly applied.

Nationwide shift from microscopic to endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery.

PURPOSE: Transsphenoidal pituitary surgery can be carried out with either an operating microscope or with an endoscope, but the relative frequency of both techniques is unknown. METHODS: All microscopic and endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgeries were extracted from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services Part B data files between the years 2003 and 2013. National and state-level trends were compared over time. RESULTS: Endoscopic surgery significantly increased and microscopic surgery significantly decreased over the years 2003-2013. Thirty-eight of 48 states increased their use of endoscopic surgery, while 38 of 48 states decreased their use of microscopic surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Nationwide data show a clear trend for an increasing use of endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery at the expense of microscopic surgery. The underlying causes of these trends are unknown, but clearly deserve further investigation.

[A current perspective of natural orifices transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES)]. / Perspectiva actual de la cirugía endoscópica transluminal por orificios naturales (CETON).

Natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) represents an alternative in surgical approach, combined with the progress and experience gained from conventional and endoscopic surgery. Bibliographic research in PubMed, Medline database from 2000 to 2015 and analysis of the literature reviews found. NOTES provides vision and natural orifice approach, it has optimized operating times as well as reduced complications and better cosmetic results. Small series of patients have been reported, but there is not a valid clinical multicenter study by evidence-based medicine. NOTES can help to improve the standard operations, complemented with laparoscopic surgery rather than replace it and thus develop tools for the resolution of various diseases that require surgical treatment. This option in current surgery is safe and presents satisfactory results in the reported cases. The development of this new approach of performing surgical procedures requires further study and development of new technology in order to increase the accessibility of these procedures and represent in a practical and sustained way, a better option to approach surgical pathology.

Natural-orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery.

BACKGROUND: Natural-orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) represents one of the most significant innovations in surgery to emerge since the advent of laparoscopy. A decade of progress with this approach has now been catalogued, and yet its clinical application remains controversial. METHODS: A PubMed search was carried out for articles describing NOTES in both the preclinical and the clinical setting. Public perceptions and expert opinion regarding NOTES in the published literature were analysed carefully. RESULTS: Two hundred relevant articles on NOTES were studied and the outcomes reviewed. A division between direct- and indirect-target NOTES was established. The areas with the most promising clinical application included direct-target NOTES, such as transanal total mesorectal excision and peroral endoscopic myotomy. The clinical experience with distant-target NOTES, such as for appendicectomy and cholecystectomy, showed feasibility; however, NOTES-specific morbidity was introduced and this represents an important limitation. CONCLUSION: NOTES experimentation in the preclinical setting has increased substantially. There has also been a significant increase in the application of NOTES in humans in the past decade. Enthusiasm for NOTES should be tempered by the risk of incurring NOTES-specific morbidity. Surgeons should carefully consider patient preferences regarding this new minimally invasive option, as opinions are not unanimously supportive of NOTES. As technical limitations are overcome, the clinical application of NOTES is predicted to increase. It is paramount that, when this complex technique is performed on humans, it is applied judiciously by appropriately trained experts with outcomes recorded in a registry.

Robotic surgery.

BACKGROUND: Proficiency in minimally invasive surgery requires intensive and continuous training, as it is technically challenging for unnatural visual and haptic perceptions. Robotic and computer sciences are producing innovations to augment the surgeon's skills to achieve accuracy and high precision during complex surgery. This article reviews the current use of robotically assisted surgery, focusing on technology as well as main applications in digestive surgery, and future perspectives. METHODS: The PubMed database was interrogated to retrieve evidence-based data on surgical applications. Internal and external consulting with key opinion leaders, renowned robotics laboratories and robotic platform manufacturers was used to produce state-of-the art business intelligence around robotically assisted surgery. RESULTS: Selected digestive procedures (oesophagectomy, gastric bypass, pancreatic and liver resections, rectal resection for cancer) might benefit from robotic assistance, although the current level of evidence is insufficient to support widespread adoption. The surgical robotic market is growing, and a variety of projects have recently been launched at both academic and corporate levels to develop lightweight, miniaturized surgical robotic prototypes. CONCLUSION: The magnified view, and improved ergonomics and dexterity offered by robotic platforms, might facilitate the uptake of minimally invasive procedures. Image guidance to complement robotically assisted procedures, through the concepts of augmented reality, could well represent a major revolution to increase safety and deal with difficulties associated with the new minimally invasive approaches.

Inventing the future of surgery.

Surgical innovation relies on patient safety and quality of life, which require a drastic iatrogenic impact reduction. A parallel development toward less invasive approaches has occurred in the field of surgery, interventional radiology, and endoscopy. Minimally invasive techniques provide unquestionable benefits to patients in terms of postoperative outcome. However, those techniques are not intuitive, and extensive training is required to overcome the inherent challenges and to be proficient and consequently to achieve a steep learning curve. Technologies have been developed by computer science and robotics departments, which might improve minimally invasive techniques. A new concept of cyber therapies is emerging through the development of computer and robotic sciences aiming at human-machine integration. Additionally, the convergence of surgery, endoscopy, and interventional radiology toward a hybrid therapeutic modality, namely image-guided minimally invasive procedures, holds promises insofar as they could well maximize benefits in terms of efficacy and iatrogenic impact. In the present manuscript, the mainstays of these new paradigm developments are briefly outlined in light of our experience and vision of the future.

Per-oral endoscopic myotomy: emerging indications and evolving techniques.

Esophageal achalasia is a benign esophageal motility disorder resulting from an impaired relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter. The principles of treatment involve disruption of the sphincter at the esophagogastric junction. Treatment techniques include balloon dilatation, botulinum toxin injection, and surgical myotomy. In 2008, per-oral endoscopic myotomy (POEM) was introduced by Inoue et al. as an endoscopic myotomy with no skin incision. The procedure has been well accepted and widely applied owing to its minimal invasiveness and high cure rates. Moreover, there have been discussions on wider indications for POEM and new technical developments have been reported. The present article reviews the historical background and present status of POEM, as well as future prospects for its application in the treatment of esophageal achalasia.

[Advances in transoral robotic surgery]. / Fortschritte in der transoralen roboterassistierten Chirurgie.

BACKGROUND: The role of transoral robotic surgery (TORS) in the treatment of head and neck tumors has expanded in the last decade. OBJECTIVES: We present the development and current advances in TORS along with the current indications and contraindications, and describe future developments. METHODS: We present our own studies and review those in the literature. RESULTS: Since approval of the da Vinci® system, the number of TORS cases has increased significantly. The main indications are tumors of the oropharynx and supraglottis. Most published studies are retrospective case series with no control group. In addition to the further development of the da Vinci® system, the introduction of the Flex®-system is a significant progression. The costs of using robotic systems are high. CONCLUSIONS: Technical improvement of robotic systems and the development of new surgical techniques will further expand the indications for TORS. The value of TORS needs to be assessed in prospective controlled studies.

Natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery for intra-abdominal emergency conditions.

BACKGROUND: Patient benefits from natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) are of interest in acute-care surgery. This review provides an overview of the historical development of NOTES procedures, and addresses their current uses and limitations for intra-abdominal emergency conditions. METHODS: A PubMed search was carried out for articles describing NOTES approaches for appendicectomy, percutaneous gastrostomy, hollow viscus perforation and pancreatic necrosectomy. Pertinent articles were reviewed and data on available outcomes synthesized. RESULTS: Emergency conditions in surgery tax the patient's cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and fluid and electrolyte balance. The operative intervention itself leads to an inflammatory response and blood loss, thus adding to the physiological stress. NOTES provides a minimally invasive alternative access to the peritoneal cavity, avoiding abdominal wall incisions. A clear advantage to the patient is evident with the implementation of an endoscopic approach to deal with inadvertently displaced percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tubes and perforated gastroduodenal ulcer. The NOTES approach appears less invasive for patients with infected pancreatic necrosis, in whom it allows surgical debridement and avoidance of open necrosectomy. Transvaginal appendicectomy is the second most frequently performed NOTES procedure after cholecystectomy. The NOTES concept has provided a change in perspective for intramural and transmural endoscopic approaches to iatrogenic perforations during endoscopy. CONCLUSION: NOTES approaches have been implemented in clinical practice over the past decade. Selected techniques offer reduced invasiveness for patients with intra-abdominal emergencies, and may improve outcomes. Steady future development and adoption of NOTES are likely to follow as technology improves and surgeons become comfortable with the approaches.

LESS and NOTES instrumentation: future.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Laparoendoscopic single-site surgery (LESS) and natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) are novel techniques with potential to minimize the morbidity of surgery. Challenging ergonomics, instrument clashing, and the lack of true triangluation still remain great concerns. RECENT FINDINGS: New technological developments in instrument design have been created to enhance clinical applicability of these techniques. Further technological advancements including the incorporation of novel robotic surgical platforms (R-LESS) exploit the ergonomic benefits in an attempt to further advance LESS surgery. Promising devices include magnetic anchoring and guidance systems that have the potential to allow external manoeuvring of intracorporeal instruments while facilitating triangulation and reducing clashing. As well, the benefit of miniature in-vivo robots that can be placed endoscopically intra-abdominally and controlled wirelessly will allow internal manipulation of tissue from internal repositionable platforms. SUMMARY: It remains to be seen whether LESS or NOTES will prove their clinical benefit over standard laparoscopic or robotic procedures. In this chapter, we review the current LESS and NOTES technology, and focus on new innovations and research in the field.

Evolving endoscopic surgery.

Since the days of Albukasim in medieval Spain, natural orifices have been regarded not only as a rather repugnant source of bodily odors, fluids and excreta, but also as a convenient invitation to explore and treat the inner passages of the organism. However, surgical ingenuity needed to be matched by appropriate tools and devices. Lack of technologically advanced instrumentation was a strong deterrent during almost a millennium until recent decades when a quantum jump materialized. Endoscopic surgery is currently a vibrant and growing subspecialty, which successfully handles millions of patients every year. Additional opportunities lie ahead which might benefit millions more, however, requiring even more sophisticated apparatuses, particularly in the field of robotics, artificial intelligence, and tissue repair (surgical suturing). This is a particularly exciting and worthwhile challenge, namely of larger and safer endoscopic interventions, followed by seamless and scarless recovery. In synthesis, the future is widely open for those who use together intelligence and creativity to develop new prototypes, new accessories and new techniques. Yet there are many challenges in the path of endoscopic surgery. In this new era of robotic endoscopy, one will likely need a virtual simulator to train and assess the performance of younger doctors. More evidence will be essential in multiple evolving fields, particularly to elucidate whether more ambitious and complex pathways, such as intrathoracic and intraperitoneal surgery via natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES), are superior or not to conventional techniques.

Transanal minimally invasive surgery for total mesorectal excision.

Transanal TME is a new and important application for TAMIS. It allows for resection and mobilization of the rectum while preserving the quality of the mesorectal envelop. This new approach has gained considerable interest not only because of its minimally invasive nature, but because TAMIS-TME offers a solution to one of the most difficult problems in rectal cancer surgery: Specifically, access to the distal rectum in obese male patients with a narrow pelvis. Recently, transanal TME has become one of the most rapidly expanding areas in rectal cancer surgery. Interestingly, the origin and inception of this approach began decades ago. The evolution of transanal TME with a historical perspective is described.

Natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES): where are we going? A bibliometric assessment.

The aim of this study was to analyse natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES)-related publications over the last 5 years. A systematic literature search was done to retrieve publications related to NOTES from 2006 to 2011. The following variables were recorded: year of publication; article type; study design; setting; Journal Citation Reports® journal category; authors area of surgical speciality; geographic area of origin; surgical procedure; NOTES technique; NOTES access route; number of clinical cases. A time-trend analysis was performed by comparing early (2006-2008) and late (2009-2011) study periods. Overall, 644 publications were included in the analysis and most papers were found in general surgery journals (50.9%). Studies were most frequently clinical series (43.9%) and animal experimental (48%), with the articles focusing primarily on cholecystectomy, access creation and closure, and peritoneoscopy. Pure NOTES techniques were performed in most of the published reports (85%) with the remaining cases being hybrid NOTES (7.4%) and NOTES-assisted procedures (6.1%). The access routes included transgastric (52.5%), transcolonic (12.3%), transvesical (12.5%), transvaginal (10.5%), and combined (12.3%). From the early to the late period, there was a significant increase in the number of randomised controlled trials (5.6% vs 7.2%) or non-randomised but comparative studies (5.6% vs 22.9%) (P < 0.001) and there was also a significant increase in the number of colorectal procedures and nephrectomies (P = 0.002). Pure NOTES remained the most studied approach over the years but with increased investigation in the field of NOTES-assisted techniques (P = 0.001). There was also a significant increase in the adoption of transvesical access (7% vs 15.6%) (P = 0.007). NOTES is in a developmental stage and much work is still needed to refine techniques, verify safety and document efficacy. Since the first description of the concept of NOTES, >2000 clinical cases, irrespective of specialty, have been reported. NOTES remains a field of intense clinical and experimental research in various surgical specialities.

Euro-NOTES Status Paper: from the concept to clinical practice.

BACKGROUND: The concept of natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) consists of the reduction of access trauma by using a natural orifice access to the intra-abdominal cavity. This could possibly lead to less postoperative pain, quicker recovery from surgery, fewer postoperative complications, fewer wound infections, and fewer long-term problems such as hernias. The Euro-NOTES Foundation has organized yearly meetings to work on this concept to bring it safely into clinical practice. The aim of this Euro-NOTES status update is to assess the yearly scientific working group reports and provide an overview on the current clinical practice of NOTES procedures. METHODS: After the Euro-NOTES meeting 2011 in Frankfurt, Germany, an analysis was started regarding the most important topics of the European working groups. All prospectively documented information was gathered from Euro-NOTES and D-NOTES working groups from 2007 to 2011. The top five topics were analyzed. RESULTS: The statements of the working group activities demonstrate the growing information and changing insights. The most important selected topics were infection issue, peritoneal access, education and training, platforms and new technology, closure, suture, and anastomosis. The focus on research topics changed over time. The principle of hybrid access has overcome the technical and safety limitations of pure NOTES. Currently the following NOTES access routes are established for several indications: transvaginal access for cholecystectomy, appendectomy and colon resections; transesophageal access for myotomy; transgastric access for full-thickness small-tumor resections; and transanal/transcolonic access for rectal and colon resections. CONCLUSIONS: NOTES and hybrid NOTES techniques have emerged for all natural orifices and were introduced into clinical practice with a good safety record. There are different indications for different natural orifices. Each technique has been optimized for the purpose of finding a safe and realistic solution to perform the procedure according to the specific indication.

Recent advances of natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery in urological surgery.

Natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery designates a surgical procedure that utilizes one or more patent natural orifices of the body with the intention to puncture a hollow viscera in order to enter the abdominal cavity. First carried out at the beginning of the 2000s in experimental models, it can be considered the natural evolution of laparoscopy towards the ideal of scarless surgery, as the avoidance of a large abdominal scar is associated with better cosmetic results and better recovery. However, the technology currently available does not allow the performance of complete pure natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery procedures. The surgical tools used are not specially designed for this approach, so difficulties in retracting organs, bleeding control and clashing of instruments are the main obstacle surgeons face. For this reason, the current available technique is the so-called hybrid approach, where a natural orifice approach is combined with some abdominal trocars, using the natural orifice as the exit door for the specimen removal. As not many comparative studies have been published evaluating the advantages of natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery in front of traditional laparoscopic surgery, a review of the history of natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery, and an assessment of the available evidence of this technique regarding renal and urological pelvic surgery are performed in this article.

[Current and future trends in natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery-related procedures: endoscopists' perspective].

The concept of "no-scar surgery" in natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) is appealing to both surgeons and endoscopists. However, it is challenging for endoscopists to perform surgery via a keyhole created in the gastrointestinal wall at a site distant from the gut lumen. Technologies developed to achieve the NOTES concept such as endoscopic suturing systems will greatly benefit endoscopists when they can be used for endolumenal intervention and push the envelope of endoscopic surgery toward deeper layers and treating the full thickness of the gut wall.