Poaceae plants transfer cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer photolyase to chloroplasts for ultraviolet-B resistance.

Photoreactivation enzyme that repairs cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) induced by ultraviolet-B radiation, commonly called CPD photolyase (PHR) is essential for plants living under sunlight. Rice (Oryza sativa) PHR (OsPHR) is a unique triple-targeting protein. The signal sequences required for its translocation to the nucleus or mitochondria are located in the C-terminal region but have yet to be identified for chloroplasts. Here, we identified sequences located in the N-terminal region, including the serine-phosphorylation site at position 7 of OsPHR, and found that OsPHR is transported/localized to chloroplasts via a vesicle transport system under the control of serine-phosphorylation. However, the sequence identified in this study is only conserved in some Poaceae species, and in many other plants, PHR is not localized to the chloroplasts. Therefore, we reasoned that Poaceae species need the ability to repair CPD in the chloroplast genome to survive under sunlight and have uniquely acquired this mechanism for PHR chloroplast translocation.

The crystal structure of Vibrio cholerae (6-4) photolyase reveals interactions with cofactors and a DNA-binding region.

Photolyases (PLs) reverse UV-induced DNA damage using blue light as an energy source. Of these PLs, (6-4) PLs repair (6-4)-lesioned photoproducts. We recently identified a gene from Vibrio cholerae (Vc) encoding a (6-4) PL, but structural characterization is needed to elucidate specific interactions with the chromophore cofactors. Here, we determined the crystal structure of Vc (6-4) PL at 2.5 Å resolution. Our high-resolution structure revealed that the two well-known cofactors, flavin adenine dinucleotide and the photoantenna 6,7-dimethyl 8-ribityl-lumazin (DMRL), stably interact with an α-helical and an α/ß domain, respectively. Additionally, the structure has a third cofactor with distinct electron clouds corresponding to a [4Fe-4S] cluster. Moreover, we identified that Asp106 makes a hydrogen bond with water and DMRL, which indicates further stabilization of the photoantenna DMRL within Vc (6-4) PL. Further analysis of the Vc (6-4) PL structure revealed a possible region responsible for DNA binding. The region located between residues 478 to 484 may bind the lesioned DNA, with Arg483 potentially forming a salt bridge with DNA to stabilize further the interaction of Vc (6-4) PL with its substrate. Our comparative analysis revealed that the DNA lesion could not bind to the Vc (6-4) PL in a similar fashion to the Drosophila melanogaster (Dm, (6-4)) PL without a significant conformational change of the protein. The 23rd helix of the bacterial (6-4) PLs seems to have remarkable plasticity, and conformational changes facilitate DNA binding. In conclusion, our structure provides further insight into DNA repair by a (6-4) PL containing three cofactors.

PHOTOLYASE/BLUE LIGHT RECEPTOR2 regulates chrysanthemum flowering by compensating for gibberellin perception.

The gibberellins (GAs) receptor GA INSENSITIVE DWARF1 (GID1) plays a central role in GA signal perception and transduction. The typical photoperiodic plant chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) only flowers when grown in short-day photoperiods. In addition, chrysanthemum flowering is also controlled by the aging pathway, but whether and how GAs participate in photoperiod- and age-dependent regulation of flowering remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate that photoperiod affects CmGID1B expression in response to GAs and developmental age. Moreover, we identified PHOTOLYASE/BLUE LIGHT RECEPTOR2, an atypical photocleavage synthase, as a CRYPTOCHROME-INTERACTING bHLH1 interactor with which it forms a complex in response to short days to activate CmGID1B transcription. Knocking down CmGID1B raised endogenous bioactive GA contents and GA signal perception, in turn modulating the expression of the aging-related genes MicroRNA156 and SQUAMOSA PROMOTER BINDING PROTEIN-LIKE3. We propose that exposure to short days accelerates the juvenile-to-adult transition by increasing endogenous GA contents and response to GAs, leading to entry into floral transformation.

A recombinant fungal photolyase autonomously enters human cell nuclei to fix UV-induced DNA lesions.

Solar ultraviolet radiations induced DNA damages in human skin cells with cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD) and (6-4) photoproducts (6-4PPs) as the most frequent lesions. CPDs are repaired much slower than 6-4PPs by the nucleotide excision repair pathway, which are thus the major lesions that interfere with key cellular processes and give rise to gene mutations, possibly resulting in skin cancer. In prokaryotes and multicellular eukaryotes other than placental mammals, CPDs can be rapidly repaired by CPD photolyases in one simple enzymatic reaction using the energy of blue light. In this study, we aim to construct recombinant CPD photolyases that can autonomously enter human cell nuclei to fix UV-induced CPDs. A fly cell penetration peptide and a viral nucleus localization signal peptide were recombined with a fungal CPD photolyase to construct a recombinant protein. This engineered CPD photolyase autonomously crosses cytoplasm and nuclear membrane of human cell nuclei, which then efficiently photo-repairs UV-induced CPD lesions in the genomic DNA. This further protects the cells by increasing SOD activity, and decreasing cellular ROSs, malondialdehyde and apoptosis.

Metarhizium pingshaense photolyase expression and virulence to Rhipicephalus microplus after UV-B exposure.

The current study examined the impact of ultraviolet (UV)-B radiation in Metarhizium pingshaense blastospores' photolyase expression and their virulence against Rhipicephalus microplus. Blastospores were exposed to UV under laboratory and field conditions. Ticks were treated topically with fungal suspension and exposed to UV-B in the laboratory for three consecutive days. The expression of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimmers (CPDs)-photolyase gene maphr1-2 in blastospores after UV exposure followed by white light exposure was accessed after 0, 8, 12, 24, 36, and 48 h. Average relative germination of blastospores 24 h after in vitro UV exposure was 8.4% lower than 48 h. Despite this, the relative germination of blastospores exposed to UV in the field 18 h (95.7 ± 0.3%) and 28 h (97.3 ± 0.8%) after exposure were not different (p > 0.05). Ticks treated with fungus and not exposed to UV exhibited 0% survival 10 days after the treatment, while fungus-treated ticks exposed to UV exhibited 50 ± 11.2% survival. Expression levels of maphr1-2 8, 12, and 24 h after UV-B exposure were not different from time zero. Maphr1-2 expression peak in M. pingshaense blastospores occurred 36 h after UV-B exposure, in the proposed conditions and times analyzed, suggesting repair mechanisms other than CPD-mediated-photoreactivation might be leading blastospores' germination from 0 to 24 h.

A single amino acid residue tunes the stability of the fully reduced flavin cofactor and photorepair activity in photolyases.

The UV-induced DNA lesions, cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and pyrimidine (6-4) pyrimidone photoproducts (6-4 photoproducts), can be directly photorepaired by CPD photolyases and 6-4 photolyases, respectively. The fully reduced flavin (hydroquinone, HQ) cofactor is required for the catalysis of both types of these photolyases. On the other hand, flavin cofactor in the semireduced state, semiquinone, can be utilized by photolyase homologs, the cryptochromes. However, the evolutionary process of the transition of the functional states of flavin cofactors in photolyases and cryptochromes remains mysterious. In this work, we investigated three representative photolyases (Escherichia coli CPD photolyase, Microcystis aeruginosa DASH, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum 6-4 photolyase). We show that the residue at a single site adjacent to the flavin cofactor (corresponding to Ala377 in E. coli CPD photolyase, hereafter referred to as site 377) can fine-tune the stability of the HQ cofactor. We found that, in the presence of a polar residue (such as Ser or Asn) at site 377, HQ was stabilized against oxidation. Furthermore, this polar residue enhanced the photorepair activity of these photolyases both in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, substitution of hydrophobic residues, such as Ile, at site 377 in these photolyases adversely affected the stability of HQ. We speculate that these differential residue preferences at site 377 in photolyase proteins might reflect an important evolutionary event that altered the stability of HQ on the timeline from expression of photolyases to that of cryptochromes.

Divergent roles of Rad4 and Rad23 homologs in Metarhizium robertsii's resistance to solar ultraviolet damage.

The anti-ultraviolet (UV) role of a Rad4-Rad23-Rad33 complex in budding yeast relies on nucleotide excision repair (NER), which is mechanistically distinct from photorepair of DNA lesions generated under solar UV irradiation but remains poorly known in filamentous fungi. Here, two nucleus-specific Rad4 paralogs (Rad4A and Rad4B) and nucleocytoplasmic shuttling Rad23 ortholog are functionally characterized by multiple analyses of their null mutants in Metarhizium robertsii, an entomopathogenic fungus lacking Rad33. Rad4A was proven to interact with Rad23 and contribute significantly more to conidial UVB resistance (90%) than Rad23 (65%). Despite no other biological function, Rad4A exhibited a very high activity in photoreactivation of UVB-impaired/inactivated conidia by 5-h light exposure due to its interaction with Rad10, an anti-UV protein clarified previously to have acquired a similar photoreactivation activity through its interaction with a photolyase in M. robertsii. The NER activity of Rad4A or Rad23 was revealed by lower reactivation rates of moderately impaired conidia after 24-h dark incubation but hardly observable at the end of 12-h dark incubation, suggesting an infeasibility of its NER activity in the field where nighttime is too short. Aside from a remarkable contribution to conidial UVB resistance, Rad23 had pleiotropic effect in radial growth, aerial conidiation, antioxidant response, and cell wall integrity but no photoreactivation activity. However, Rad4B proved redundant in function. The high photoreactivation activity of Rad4A unveils its essentiality for M. robertsii's fitness to solar UV irradiation and is distinct from the yeast homolog's anti-UV role depending on NER. IMPORTANCE Resilience of solar ultraviolet (UV)-impaired cells is crucial for the application of fungal insecticides based on formulated conidia. Anti-UV roles of Rad4, Rad23, and Rad33 rely upon nucleotide excision repair (NER) of DNA lesions in budding yeast. Among two Rad4 paralogs and Rad23 ortholog characterized in Metarhizium robertsii lacking Rad33, Rad4A contributes to conidial UVB resistance more than Rad23, which interacts with Rad4A rather than functionally redundant Rad4B. Rad4A acquires a high activity in photoreactivation of conidia severely impaired or inactivated by UVB irradiation through its interaction with Rad10, another anti-UV protein previously proven to interact with a photorepair-required photolyase. The NER activity of either Rad4A or Rad23 is seemingly extant but unfeasible under field conditions. Rad23 has pleiotropic effect in the asexual cycle in vitro but no photoreactivation activity. Therefore, the strong anti-UV role of Rad4A depends on photoreactivation, unveiling a scenario distinct from the yeast homolog's NER-reliant anti-UV role.

Xenopus: An in vivo model for studying skin response to ultraviolet B irradiation.

Ultraviolet B (UVB) in sunlight cause skin damage, ranging from wrinkles to photoaging and skin cancer. UVB can affect genomic DNA by creating cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and pyrimidine-pyrimidine (6-4) photoproducts (6-4PPs). These lesions are mainly repaired by the nucleotide excision repair (NER) system and by photolyase enzymes that are activated by blue light. Our main goal was to validate the use of Xenopus laevis as an in vivo model system for investigating the impact of UVB on skin physiology. The mRNA expression levels of xpc and six other genes of the NER system and CPD/6-4PP photolyases were found at all stages of embryonic development and in all adult tissues tested. When examining Xenopus embryos at different time points after UVB irradiation, we observed a gradual decrease in CPD levels and an increased number of apoptotic cells, together with an epidermal thickening and an increased dendricity of melanocytes. We observed a quick removal of CPDs when embryos are exposed to blue light versus in the dark, confirming the efficient activation of photolyases. A decrease in the number of apoptotic cells and an accelerated return to normal proliferation rate was noted in blue light-exposed embryos compared with their control counterparts. Overall, a gradual decrease in CPD levels, detection of apoptotic cells, thickening of epidermis, and increased dendricity of melanocytes, emulate human skin responses to UVB and support Xenopus as an appropriate and alternative model for such studies.

Contribution of cryptochromes and photolyases for insect life under sunlight.

The cryptochrome/photolyase (CRY/PL) family is essential for life under sunlight because photolyases repair UV-damaged DNA and cryptochromes are normally part of the circadian clock that controls the activity-sleep cycle within the 24-h day. In this study, we aim to understand how the lineage and habitat of an insect affects its CRY/PL composition. To this end, we searched the large number of annotated protein sequences of 340 insect species already available in databases for CRY/PLs. Using phylogenetic tree and motif analyses, we identified four frequent CRY/PLs in insects: the photolyases 6-4 PL and CPDII PL, as well as the mammalian-type cryptochrome (MCRY) and Drosophila-type cryptochrome (DCRY). Assignment of CRY/PLs to the corresponding insects confirmed that light-exposed insects tend to have more CRY/PLs than insects with little light exposure. Nevertheless, even insects with greatly reduced CRY/PLs still possess MCRY, which can be regarded as the major insect cryptochrome. Only flies of the genus Schizophora, which includes Drosophila melanogaster, lost MCRY. Moreover, we found that MCRY and CPDII PL as well as DCRY and 6-4 PL occur very frequently together, suggesting an interaction between the two pairs.

Ultraviolet B-Rays Induced Gene Alterations and DNA Repair Enzymes in Skin Tissue.

BACKGROUND: Ultraviolet (UV) radiation leads to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage and changes in gene expression. Topical DNA repair enzymes in liposomes are capable of undoing this damage. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate gene expression changes induced by ultraviolent B-rays (UVB) light and assess the effect of topical DNA repair enzymes extracted from Micrococcus luteus (M. luteus) and photolyase in modifying these changes. METHODS: Non-invasive, adhesive patch collection kits were used to sample skin on the right and left post-auricular areas before and 24 hours after UVB exposure (n=48). Subjects applied topical DNA repair enzymes to the right post-auricular area daily for 2 weeks. Subjects returned 2 weeks later for repeat non-invasive skin sample collection. RESULTS: Eight of 18 tested genes demonstrated significant changes 24 hours following UVB exposure. DNA repair enzymes from M. luteus or photolyase had no significant effect on genetic expression compared with the control at 2 weeks post UV exposure. CONCLUSION: UVB exposure causes acute changes in gene expression, which may play roles in photo-aging damage and skin cancer growth and regulation. While non-invasive gene expression testing can detect UV damage, additional genomic studies investigating recovery from UV damage at different time periods are needed to establish the potential of DNA repair enzymes to minimize or reverse this damage. J Drugs Dermatol. 2023;22(5): doi:10.36849/JDD.7070.

Involvement of glycogen metabolism in circadian control of UV resistance in cyanobacteria.

Most organisms harbor circadian clocks as endogenous timing systems in order to adapt to daily environmental changes, such as exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light. It has been hypothesized that the circadian clock evolved to prevent UV-sensitive activities, such as DNA replication and cell division, during the daytime. Indeed, circadian control of UV resistance has been reported in several eukaryotic organisms, from algae to higher organisms, although the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 exhibits a circadian rhythm in resistance to UV-C and UV-B light, which is higher during subjective dawn and lower during subjective dusk. Nullification of the clock gene cluster kaiABC or the DNA-photolyase phr abolished rhythmicity with constitutively lower resistance to UV-C light, and amino acid substitutions of KaiC altered the period lengths of the UV-C resistance rhythm. In order to elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying the circadian regulation of UV-C resistance, transposon insertion mutants that alter UV-C resistance were isolated. Mutations to the master circadian output mediator genes sasA and rpaA and the glycogen degradation enzyme gene glgP abolished circadian rhythms of UV-C resistance with constitutively high UV-C resistance. Combining these results with further experiments using ATP synthesis inhibitor and strains with modified metabolic pathways, we showed that UV-C resistance is weakened by directing more metabolic flux from the glycogen degradation to catabolic pathway such as oxidative pentose phosphate pathway and glycolysis. We suggest glycogen-related metabolism in the dark affects circadian control in UV sensitivity, while the light masks this effect through the photolyase function.

Identification of a Novel Class of Photolyases as Possible Ancestors of Their Family.

UV irradiation induces the formation of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and 6-4 photoproducts in DNA. These two types of lesions can be directly photorepaired by CPD photolyases and 6-4 photolyases, respectively. Recently, a new class of 6-4 photolyases named iron-sulfur bacterial cryptochromes and photolyases (FeS-BCPs) were found, which were considered as the ancestors of all photolyases and their homologs-cryptochromes. However, a controversy exists regarding 6-4 photoproducts only constituting ∼10-30% of the total UV-induced lesions that primordial organisms would hardly survive without a CPD repair enzyme. By extensive phylogenetic analyses, we identified a novel class of proteins, all from eubacteria. They have relatively high similarity to class I/III CPD photolyases, especially in the putative substrate-binding and FAD-binding regions. However, these proteins are shorter, and they lack the "N-terminal α/ß domain" of normal photolyases. Therefore, we named them short photolyase-like. Nevertheless, similar to FeS-BCPs, some of short photolyase-likes also contain four conserved cysteines, which may also coordinate an iron-sulfur cluster as FeS-BCPs. A member from Rhodococcus fascians was cloned and expressed. It was demonstrated that the protein contains a FAD cofactor and an iron-sulfur cluster, and has CPD repair activity. It was speculated that this novel class of photolyases may be the real ancestors of the cryptochrome/photolyase family.

Computational studies on photolyase (Phr) proteins of cyanobacteria.

Photolyases (Phrs) are enzymes that utilize the blue/ultraviolet (UV-A) region of light for repairing UV-induced cyclopyramidine dimers. We studied Phr groups by bioinformatic analyses as well as active-site and structural modeling. Analysis of 238 amino acid sequences from 85 completely sequenced cyanobacterial genomes revealed five classes of Phrs, CPD Gr I, 6-4 Phrs/cryptochrome, Cry-DASH, Fe-S bacteria Phrs, and a group with fewer amino acids (276-385) in length. The distribution of Phr groups in cyanobacteria belonging to the order Synechococcales was found to be influenced by the habitats of the organisms. Class V Phrs are exclusively present in cyanobacteria. Unique motifs and binding sites were reported in groups II and III. The Fe-S protein binding site was only present in group V and the active site residues and putative CPD/6-4PP binding residues are charged amino acids present on the surface of the proteins. The majority of hydrophilic amino acid residues were present on the surface of the Phrs. Sequence analysis confirmed the diverse nature of Phrs, although sequence diversity did not affect the overall three-dimensional structure. Protein-ligand interaction analysis identified novel CPD/6-4PP binding sites on Phrs. This structural information of Phrs can be used for the preparation of efficient Phr-based formulations.

A topologically distinct class of photolyases specific for UV lesions within single-stranded DNA.

Photolyases are ubiquitously occurring flavoproteins for catalyzing photo repair of UV-induced DNA damages. All photolyases described so far have a bilobal architecture with a C-terminal domain comprising flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) as catalytic cofactor and an N-terminal domain capable of harboring an additional antenna chromophore. Using sequence-similarity network analysis we discovered a novel subgroup of the photolyase/cryptochrome superfamily (PCSf), the NewPHLs. NewPHL occur in bacteria and have an inverted topology with an N-terminal catalytic domain and a C-terminal domain for sealing the FAD binding site from solvent access. By characterizing two NewPHL we show a photochemistry characteristic of other PCSf members as well as light-dependent repair of CPD lesions. Given their common specificity towards single-stranded DNA many bacterial species use NewPHL as a substitute for DASH-type photolyases. Given their simplified architecture and function we suggest that NewPHL are close to the evolutionary origin of the PCSf.

Preparation of CPD Photolyase Nanoliposomes Derived from Antarctic Microalgae and Their Effect on UVB-Induced Skin Damage in Mice.

UVB radiation is known to trigger the block of DNA replication and transcription by forming cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD), which results in severe skin damage. CPD photolyase, a kind of DNA repair enzyme, can efficiently repair CPDs that are absent in humans and mice. Although exogenous CPD photolyases have beneficial effects on skin diseases, the mechanisms of CPD photolyases on the skin remain unknown. Here, this study prepared CPD photolyase nanoliposomes (CPDNL) from Antarctic Chlamydomonas sp. ICE-L, which thrives in harsh, high-UVB conditions, and evaluated their protective mechanisms against UVB-induced damage in mice. CPDNL were optimized using response surface methodology, characterized by a mean particle size of 105.5 nm, with an encapsulation efficiency of 63.3%. Topical application of CPDNL prevented UVB-induced erythema, epidermal thickness, and wrinkles in mice. CPDNL mitigated UVB-induced DNA damage by significantly decreasing the CPD concentration. CPDNL exhibited antioxidant properties as they reduced the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde. Through activation of the NF-κB pathway, CPDNL reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2. Furthermore, CPDNL suppressed the MAPK signaling activation by downregulating the mRNA and protein expression of ERK, JNK, and p38 as well as AP-1. The MMP-1 and MMP-2 expressions were also remarkably decreased, which inhibited the collagen degradation. Therefore, we concluded that CPDNL exerted DNA repair, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and anti-wrinkle properties as well as collagen protection via regulation of the NF-κB/MAPK/MMP signaling pathways in UVB-induced mice, demonstrating that Antarctic CPD photolyases have the potential for skincare products against UVB and photoaging.

Photolyase Production and Current Applications: A Review.

The photolyase family consists of flavoproteins with enzyme activity able to repair ultraviolet light radiation damage by photoreactivation. DNA damage by the formation of a cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) and a pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproduct can lead to multiple affections such as cellular apoptosis and mutagenesis that can evolve into skin cancer. The development of integrated applications to prevent the negative effects of prolonged sunlight exposure, usually during outdoor activities, is imperative. This study presents the functions, characteristics, and types of photolyases, their therapeutic and cosmetic applications, and additionally explores some photolyase-producing microorganisms and drug delivery systems.

Two white collar proteins protect fungal cells from solar UV damage by their interactions with two photolyases in Metarhizium robertsii.

The photolyases PHR1 and PHR2 enable photorepair of fungal DNA lesions in the forms of UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) and (6-4)-pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4PP) photoproducts, but their regulation remains mechanistically elusive. Here, we report that the white collar proteins WC1 and WC2 mutually interacting to form a light-responsive transcription factor regulate photolyase expression required for fungal UV resistance in the insect-pathogenic fungus Metharhizum robertsii. Conidial UVB resistance decreased by 54% in Δwc1 and 67% in Δwc2. Five-hour exposure of UVB-inactivated conidia to visible light resulted in photoreactivation rates of 30% and 9% for the Δwc1 and Δwc2 mutants, contrasting to 79%-82% for wild-type and complemented strains. Importantly, abolished transcription of phr1 in Δwc-2 and of phr2 in Δwc1 resulted in incapable photorepair of CDP and 6-4PP DNA lesions in UVB-impaired Δwc2 and Δwc1 cells respectively. Yeast two-hybrid assays revealed interactions of either WC protein with both PHR1 and PHR2. Therefore, the essential roles for WC1 and WC2 in both photorepair of UVB-induced DNA lesions and photoreactivation of UVB-inactivated conidia rely upon their interactions with, and hence transcriptional activation of, PHR1 and PHR2. These findings uncover a novel WC-cored pathway that mediates filamentous fungal response and adaptation to solar UV irradiation.

Fluorescently-labelled CPD and 6-4PP photolyases: new tools for live-cell DNA damage quantification and laser-assisted repair.

UV light induces cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproducts (6-4PPs), which can result in carcinogenesis and aging, if not properly repaired by nucleotide excision repair (NER). Assays to determine DNA damage load and repair rates are invaluable tools for fundamental and clinical NER research. However, most current assays to quantify DNA damage and repair cannot be performed in real time. To overcome this limitation, we made use of the damage recognition characteristics of CPD and 6-4PP photolyases (PLs). Fluorescently-tagged PLs efficiently recognize UV-induced DNA damage without blocking NER activity, and therefore can be used as sensitive live-cell damage sensors. Importantly, FRAP-based assays showed that PLs bind to damaged DNA in a highly sensitive and dose-dependent manner, and can be used to quantify DNA damage load and to determine repair kinetics in real time. Additionally, PLs can instantly reverse DNA damage by 405 nm laser-assisted photo-reactivation during live-cell imaging, opening new possibilities to study lesion-specific NER dynamics and cellular responses to damage removal. Our results show that fluorescently-tagged PLs can be used as a versatile tool to sense, quantify and repair DNA damage, and to study NER kinetics and UV-induced DNA damage response in living cells.

A Case Study of Eukaryogenesis: The Evolution of Photoreception by Photolyase/Cryptochrome Proteins.

Eukaryogenesis, the origin of the eukaryotes, is still poorly understood. Herein, we show how a detailed all-kingdom phylogenetic analysis overlaid with a map of key biochemical features can provide valuable clues. The photolyase/cryptochrome family of proteins are well known to repair DNA in response to potentially harmful effects of sunlight and to entrain circadian rhythms. Phylogenetic analysis of photolyase/cryptochrome protein sequences from a wide range of prokaryotes and eukaryotes points to a number of horizontal gene transfer events between ancestral bacteria and ancestral eukaryotes. Previous experimental research has characterised patterns of tryptophan residues in these proteins that are important for photoreception, specifically a tryptophan dyad, a canonical tryptophan triad, an alternative tryptophan triad, a tryptophan tetrad and an alternative tetrad. Our results suggest that the spread of the different triad and tetrad motifs across the kingdoms of life accompanied the putative horizontal gene transfers and is consistent with multiple bacterial contributions to eukaryogenesis.

Photoprotective Role of Photolyase-Interacting RAD23 and Its Pleiotropic Effect on the Insect-Pathogenic Fungus Beauveria bassiana.

RAD23 can repair yeast DNA lesions through nucleotide excision repair (NER), a mechanism that is dependent on proteasome activity and ubiquitin chains but different from photolyase-depending photorepair of UV-induced DNA damages. However, this accessory NER protein remains functionally unknown in filamentous fungi. In this study, orthologous RAD23 in Beauveria bassiana, an insect-pathogenic fungus that is a main source of fungal insecticides, was found to interact with the photolyase PHR2, enabling repair of DNA lesions by degradation of UVB-induced cytotoxic (6-4)-pyrimidine-pyrimidine photoproducts under visible light, and it hence plays an essential role in the photoreactivation of UVB-inactivated conidia but no role in reactivation of such conidia through NER in dark conditions. Fluorescence-labeled RAD23 was shown to normally localize in the cytoplasm, to migrate to vacuoles in the absence of carbon, nitrogen, or both, and to enter nuclei under various stresses, which include UVB, a harmful wavelength of sunlight. Deletion of the rad23 gene resulted in an 84% decrease in conidial UVB resistance, a 95% reduction in photoreactivation rate of UVB-inactivated conidia, and a drastic repression of phr2 A yeast two-hybrid assay revealed a positive RAD23-PHR2 interaction. Overexpression of phr2 in the Δrad23 mutant largely mitigated the severe defect of the Δrad23 mutant in photoreactivation. Also, the deletion mutant was severely compromised in radial growth, conidiation, conidial quality, virulence, multiple stress tolerance, and transcriptional expression of many phenotype-related genes. These findings unveil not only the pleiotropic effects of RAD23 in B. bassiana but also a novel RAD23-PHR2 interaction that is essential for the photoprotection of filamentous fungal cells from UVB damage.IMPORTANCE RAD23 is able to repair yeast DNA lesions through nucleotide excision in full darkness, a mechanism distinct from photolyase-dependent photorepair of UV-induced DNA damage but functionally unknown in filamentous fungi. Our study unveils that the RAD23 ortholog in a filamentous fungal insect pathogen varies in subcellular localization according to external cues, interacts with a photolyase required for photorepair of cytotoxic (6-4)-pyrimidine-pyrimidine photoproducts in UV-induced DNA lesions, and plays an essential role in conidial UVB resistance and reactivation of UVB-inactivated conidia under visible light rather than in the dark, as required for nucleotide excision repair. Loss-of-function mutations of RAD23 exert pleiotropic effects on radial growth, aerial conidiation, multiple stress responses, virulence, virulence-related cellular events, and phenotype-related gene expression. These findings highlight a novel mechanism underlying the photoreactivation of UVB-impaired fungal cells by RAD23 interacting with the photolyase, as well as its essentiality for filamentous fungal life.