The chromosome-scale assembly of the Salvia rosmarinus genome provides insight into carnosic acid biosynthesis.

Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) is considered a sacred plant because of its special fragrance and is commonly used in cooking and traditional medicine. Here, we report a high-quality chromosome-level assembly of the S. rosmarinus genome of 1.11 Gb in size; the genome has a scaffold N50 value of 95.5 Mb and contains 40 701 protein-coding genes. In contrast to other diploid Labiataceae, an independent whole-genome duplication event occurred in S. rosmarinus at approximately 15 million years ago. Transcriptomic comparison of two S. rosmarinus cultivars with contrasting carnosic acid (CA) content revealed 842 genes significantly positively associated with CA biosynthesis in S. rosmarinus. Many of these genes have been reported to be involved in CA biosynthesis previously, such as genes involved in the mevalonate/methylerythritol phosphate pathways and CYP71-coding genes. Based on the genomes and these genes, we propose a model of CA biosynthesis in S. rosmarinus. Further, comparative genome analysis of the congeneric species revealed the species-specific evolution of CA biosynthesis genes. The genes encoding diterpene synthase and the cytochrome P450 (CYP450) family of CA synthesis-associated genes form a biosynthetic gene cluster (CPSs-KSLs-CYP76AHs) responsible for the synthesis of leaf and root diterpenoids, which are located on S. rosmarinus chromosomes 1 and 2, respectively. Such clustering is also observed in other sage (Salvia) plants, thus suggesting that genes involved in diterpenoid synthesis are conserved in the Labiataceae family. These findings provide new insights into the synthesis of aromatic terpenoids and their regulation.

The effect of the combined application of elicitors to Salvia virgata Jacq. under salinity stress on physiological and antioxidant defense.

Salinity stress is one of the most important stress barriers to crop production worldwide. Developing and implementing new strategies against salinity stress is critical for increasing agricultural productivity and supporting sustainable farming. Elicitors such as nanoparticles and Salicylic acid have recently been used potentially for better product yield. Therefore, in our research the Salvia virgata plant was exposed to salinity (NaCl) stress, and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONP), salicylic acid (SA), and the ZnONP + SA combination were applied to plants divided into different groups. While salinity stress decreased the amount of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid pigments, SA, ZnONP, and SA + ZnONP elicitors combined with salinity stress enhanced the content of all three pigments. While salt stress raised MDA, H2O2, total phenolic, total flavonoid, soluble sugar and proline content, elicitor applications enhanced proline, soluble sugar, total phenolic and total flavonoid content more. Additionally, the application of NaCl + SA + ZnONP increased proline content by 21.55% and sugar content by 15.73% compared to NaCl application, while decreasing MDA content by 42.28% and H2O2 levels by 42.34%, thereby alleviating the plant's salt stress. It was revealed that DPPH, ABTS, and CUPRAC antioxidant activity sequence used to determine the total antioxidant activity displayed similarities, and it was found as NaCI + ZnONP > NaCI + SA > NaCI + SA + ZnONP > NaCI > Control. Furthermore, all elicitor applications increased CAT, GR, APX, and SOD enzyme activities while reducing oxidative stress in S. virgata plants. When all the data were evaluated, it was confirmed that SA and ZnONP had a synergistic effect and that SA and ZnONP have the potential to support plant development and growth under salinity. SA and ZnONP applications may have the capacity to least the detrimental impacts of salinity stress on plants. However, further research is needed to investigate the effectiveness of SA and ZnONPs in ameliorating salinity or different stress factors in various other plants.

Integrative effects of phytohormones in the phenolic acids production in Salvia verticillata L. under multi-walled carbon nanotubes and methyl jasmonate elicitation.

Salvia verticillata L. is a well-known herb rich in rosmarinic acid (RA) and with therapeutic values. To better understand the possible roles of phytohormones in the production of phenolic acids in S. verticillata, in this work, we investigated some physiological and biochemical responses of the species to methyl jasmonate (MJ) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) as two effective elicitors. The leaves were sprayed with aqueous solutions containing 100 mg L-1 MWCNTs and 100 µM MJ and then harvested during interval times of exposure up to 96 h. The level of abscisic acid, as the first effective phytohormone, was altered in the leaves in response to MJ and MWCNTs elicitation (2.26- and 3.06-fold more than the control, respectively), followed by significant increases (P ˂ 0.05) detected in jasmonic acid and salicylic acid contents up to 8 h after exposure. Obtained data revealed that simultaneously with changes in phytohormone profiles, significant (P ˂ 0.05) rises were observed in the content of H2O2 (8.85- and 9.74-folds of control), and the amount of lipid peroxidation (10.18- and 17.01-folds of control) during the initial times after exposure to MJ and MWCNTs, respectively. Later, the content of phenolic acids increased in the elicited leaves due to changes in the transcription levels of key enzymes involved in their biosynthesis pathways, so 2.71- and 11.52-fold enhances observed in the RA content of the leaves after exposure to MJ and MWCNTs, respectively. It is reasonable to conclude that putative linkages between changes in some phytohormone pools lead to the accumulation of phenolic acids in the leaves of S. verticillata under elicitation. Overall, the current findings help us improve our understanding of the signal transduction pathways of the applied stimuli that led to enhanced secondary metabolite production in medicinal plants.

High-quality chromosome-level genome assembly and multi-omics analysis of rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) reveals new insights into the environmental and genome adaptation.

High-quality genome of rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) represents a valuable resource and tool for understanding genome evolution and environmental adaptation as well as its genetic improvement. However, the existing rosemary genome did not provide insights into the relationship between antioxidant components and environmental adaptability. In this study, by employing Nanopore sequencing and Hi-C technologies, a total of 1.17 Gb (97.96%) genome sequences were mapped to 12 chromosomes with 46 121 protein-coding genes and 1265 non-coding RNA genes. Comparative genome analysis reveals that rosemary had a closely genetic relationship with Salvia splendens and Salvia miltiorrhiza, and it diverged from them approximately 33.7 million years ago (MYA), and one whole-genome duplication occurred around 28.3 MYA in rosemary genome. Among all identified rosemary genes, 1918 gene families were expanded, 35 of which are involved in the biosynthesis of antioxidant components. These expanded gene families enhance the ability of rosemary adaptation to adverse environments. Multi-omics (integrated transcriptome and metabolome) analysis showed the tissue-specific distribution of antioxidant components related to environmental adaptation. During the drought, heat and salt stress treatments, 36 genes in the biosynthesis pathways of carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid and flavonoids were up-regulated, illustrating the important role of these antioxidant components in responding to abiotic stresses by adjusting ROS homeostasis. Moreover, cooperating with the photosynthesis, substance and energy metabolism, protein and ion balance, the collaborative system maintained cell stability and improved the ability of rosemary against harsh environment. This study provides a genomic data platform for gene discovery and precision breeding in rosemary. Our results also provide new insights into the adaptive evolution of rosemary and the contribution of antioxidant components in resistance to harsh environments.

Phylogenomic perspectives on speciation and reproductive isolation in a North American biodiversity hotspot: an example using California sages (Salvia subgenus Audibertia: Lamiaceae).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The California Floristic Province (CA-FP) is the most species-rich region of North America north of Mexico. One of several proposed hypotheses explaining the exceptional diversity of the region is that the CA-FP harbours myriad recently diverged lineages with nascent reproductive barriers. Salvia subgenus Audibertia is a conspicuous element of the CA-FP, with multiple sympatric and compatible species. METHODS: Using 305 nuclear loci and both organellar genomes, we reconstruct species trees, examine genomic discordance, conduct divergence-time estimation, and analyse contemporaneous patterns of gene flow and mechanical reproductive isolation. KEY RESULTS: Despite strong genomic discordance, an underlying bifurcating tree is supported. Organellar genomes capture additional introgression events not detected in the nuclear genome. Most interfertility is found within clades, indicating that reproductive barriers arise with increasing genetic divergence. Species are generally not mechanically isolated, suggesting that it is unlikely to be the primary factor leading to reproductive isolation. CONCLUSIONS: Rapid, recent speciation with some interspecific gene flow in conjunction with the onset of a Mediterranean-like climate is the underlying cause of extant diversity in Salvia subgenus Audibertia. Speciation has largely not been facilitated by gene flow. Its signal in the nuclear genome seems to mostly be erased by backcrossing, but organellar genomes each capture different instances of historical gene flow, probably characteristic of many CA-FP lineages. Mechanical reproductive isolation appears to be only part of a mosaic of factors limiting gene flow.

Discovery and Bioinspired Synthesis of Salpratone A.

Salpratone A (1), a novel abietane diterpenoid containing a unique cis-fused A/B ring, was isolated from Salvia prattii. Bioactivity studies showed that 1 has potent activity in inhibiting platelet aggregation induced by multiple agonists as well as antithrombotic efficacy in the FeCl3-induced rat in vivo thrombosis model. Furthermore, a bioinspired synthesis of 1 from the abundant natural product ferruginol was achieved in 6 steps with a 22% overall yield. The key steps include a stereoselective allyl oxidation and a subsequent regioselective Meinwald rearrangement.

Transcriptome sequencing of medical herb Salvia Rosmarinus (Rosemary) revealed the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway genes and their phylogenetic relationships.

BACKGROUND: The Salvia rosmarinus spenn. (rosemary) is considered an economically important ornamental and medicinal plant and is widely utilized in culinary and for treating several diseases. However, the procedure behind synthesizing secondary metabolites-based bioactive compounds at the molecular level in S. rosmarinus is not explored completely. METHODS AND RESULTS: We performed transcriptomic sequencing of the pooled sample from leaf and stem tissues on the Illumina HiSeqTM X10 platform. The transcriptomics analysis led to the generation of 29,523,608 raw reads, followed by data pre-processing which generated 23,208,592 clean reads, and de novo assembly of S. rosmarinus obtained 166,849 unigenes. Among them, nearly 75.1% of unigenes i.e., 28,757 were interpreted against a non-redundant protein database. The gene ontology-based annotation classified them into 3 main categories and 55 sub-categories, and clusters of orthologous genes annotation categorized them into 23 functional categories. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database-based pathway analysis confirmed the involvement of 13,402 unigenes in 183 biochemical pathways, among these unigenes, 1,186 are involved in the 17 secondary metabolite production pathways. Several key enzymes involved in producing aromatic amino acids and phenylpropanoids were identified from the transcriptome database. Among the identified 48 families of transcription factors from coding unigenes, bHLH, MYB, WRKYs, NAC, C2H2, C3H, and ERF are involved in flavonoids and other secondary metabolites biosynthesis. CONCLUSION: The phylogenetic analysis revealed the evolutionary relationship between the phenylpropanoid pathway genes of rosemary with other members of Lamiaceae. Our work reveals a new molecular mechanism behind the biosynthesis of phenylpropanoids and their regulation in rosemary plants.

Distinction of chia varieties in vivo and in vitro based on the flow cytometry and rosmarinic acid production.

Flow cytometry has made a significant contribution to the study of several complex fundamental mechanisms in plant cytogenetics, becoming a useful analytical tool to understand several mechanisms and processes underlying plant growth, development, and function. In this study, the genome size, DNA ploidy level, and A-T/G-C ratio were measured for the first time for two genotypes of chia, Salvia hispanica, an herbaceous plant commonly used in phytotherapy and nutrition. This study also evaluated, for the first time by flow cytometry, the capacity to produce organic acids of tissues stained with LysoTracker Deep Red after elicitation with either yeast extract or cadmium chloride. Rosmarinic acid content differed between the two chia varieties treated with different elicitor concentrations, compared with non-elicited plant material. Elicited tissues of both varieties contained a higher content of rosmarinic acid compared with non-elicited cultures, and cadmium chloride at 500 µM was much better than that at 1000 µM, which led to plant death. For both genotypes, a dose-response was observed with yeast extract, as the higher the concentration of elicitor used, the higher rosmarinic acid content, resulting also in better results and a higher content of rosmarinic acid compared with cadmium chloride. This study demonstrates that flow cytometry may be used as a taxonomy tool, to distinguish among very close genotypses of a given species and, for the first time in plants, that this approach can also be put to profit for a characterization of the cytoplasmic acid phase and the concomitant production of secondary metabolites of interest in vitro, with or without elicitation. KEY POINTS: • Genome size, ploidy level, A-T/G-C ratio, and cytoplasm acid phase of S. hispanica • Cytometry study of cytoplasm acid phase of LysoTracker Deep Red-stained plant cells • Yeast extract or cadmium chloride elicited rosmarinic acid production of chia tissues.

Nanoliposome-loaded phenolics from Salvia leriifolia Benth and its anticancer effects against induced colorectal cancer in mice.

Colon cancer is one of the leading causes of death among various types of cancer. Despite the significant progress made in cancer treatment, chemotherapy resistance and various side effects are still prevalent. The objective of this study is to assess the therapeutic potential of phenolic-rich fraction encapsulated nanoliposome (PRF-NLs) of Salvia leriifolia Benth in the treatment of colon cancer in mice. Initially, the phenolic-rich fraction (PRF) was extracted and then encapsulated into nanoliposomes. The physicochemical properties of the nanoliposomes were evaluated using dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, and field emission scanning electron microscopy. Subsequently, 24 mice with HT-29 colon cancer cells were divided into three groups, and the anticancer effects of PRF-NLs were measured. The results showed that the ethyl acetate fraction of S. leriifolia was the highest PRF containing 14.27 ± 2.39 mg (gallic acid) GA/g DW (dry weight), and the PRF successfully loaded into the nanoliposome structure resulted in the synthesis of nanoliposomes with a nanometer size and spherical shape and homogenous dispersion. Some of the abundant bioactive phenolic compounds in the nanoliposome-loaded PRF are salicylic acid and naringin. The average daily weight gain and food intake, and changes in the expression of caspase 3, Bax (Bcl-2 associated X-protein), and Bcl2 (B-cell lymphoma 2), inducible nitric oxide synthase genes, were observed in the mice group induced colorectal cancer cells. At a dose of 100 mg TPC (total phenolic content)/kg BW/day, the nonencapsulated PRF dietary addition improved these parameters; however, the potential shown by nanoliposome-encapsulated PRF than the nonencapsulated PRF in enhancing health parameters in mice was higher. The developed intestinal absorption and bioavailability of nanoliposome-encapsulated PRF contribute to its increased health-promoting activity. Thereby, the synthesized nanoliposome may be a potential natural anticancer drug to prevent colorectal cancer.

Purification, Molecular Docking and Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Bioactive Pentacyclic Polyhydroxylated Triterpenoids from Salvia urmiensis.

Triterpenoids, as one of the largest classes of naturally occurring secondary metabolites in higher plants, are of interest due to their high structural diversity and wide range of biological activities. In addition to several promising pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects, a large number of triterpenoids have revealed high potential for cancer therapy through their strong cytotoxicity on cancer cell lines and, also, low toxicity in normal cells. So, this study was aimed at discovering novel and potentially bioactive triterpenoids from the Salvia urmiensis species. For this, an ethyl acetate fraction of the acetone extract of the aerial parts of the plant was chromatographed to yield five novel polyhydroxylated triterpenoids (1: -5: ). Their structure was elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods including 1D (1H, 13C, DEPT-Q) and 2D NMR (COSY, HSQC, HMBC, NOESY) experiments, as well as HRESIMS analysis. Cytotoxic activity of the purified compounds was also investigated by MTT assay against the MCF-7 cancer cell line. Furthermore, a molecular docking analysis was applied to evaluate the inhibition potential of the ligands against the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) protein, which promotes tumor metastasis or affects gene expression in cancer disease. The 1ß,11ß,22α-trihydroxy-olean-12-ene-3-one (compound 4: ) indicated the best activity in both in vitro and in silico assays, with an IC50 value of 32 µM and a docking score value of - 3.976 kcal/mol, respectively.

Inhalation of Spray-Dried Extract of Salvia rosmarinus Spenn Alleviates Lung Inflammatory, Oxidative, and Remodeling Changes in Asthmatic Rats.

INTRODUCTION: For centuries, Salvia rosmarinus Spenn has been applied as folk medicine to cure different diseases due to its anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, antifungal, and antitumor effects. To find bioactive medicinal herbs exerting a protective effect on airway inflammation and remodeling, we assessed the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of an aqueous spray-dried extract of Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. (rosemary) in an ovalbumin-induced asthmatic rat model. METHODS: Rats were randomly divided into normal control (control), asthma, asthma+rosemary extract (RE) (13 mg/kg), asthma+RE (50 mg/kg), and asthma+budesonide groups. After 50 days, animals were anesthetized, and then blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and lung tissues were collected for subsequent serological and pathological studies. Histopathology of lung tissues was evaluated by H&E staining. The oxidative stress parameters and airway inflammation factors in BALF and lung tissue were explored. RESULTS: Using thin layer chromatography, the presence of rosmarinic acid was confirmed in aqueous extract of rosemary. Furthermore, RE markedly decreased immunoglobulin E levels (50 mg/kg; p < 0.001 vs. asthma group) and inflammatory cytokines (50 mg/kg; p < 0.001 vs. asthma group) and increased antioxidant enzymes (50 mg/kg, p < 0.001 vs. asthma group). Furthermore, RE at a concentration of 50 mg/kg obviously reduced the number of inflammatory cells, goblet cells, and pathological changes compared to the asthma group. CONCLUSION: The results showed that RE administration might prevent or alleviate allergic asthma-related pathological change, probably via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

Two Undescribed Germacrane-Type Sesquiterpenoids from Salvia cavaleriei var. simplicifolia Stib. and Their Anti-Alzheimer's Disease Activity.

Two undescribed germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids, salcasins A (1) and B (2), together with three known compounds (3-5) were isolated and identified from the whole plant of Salvia cavaleriei var. simplicifolia Stib. The structures of the undescribed compounds were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic methods, such as HR-ESI-MS, 1D and 2D NMR data. The relative configurations of 1 and 2 were established by analyzing their NOESY spectra as well as by 13C NMR calculations with DP4+ probability analyses. The absolute configurations of 1 and 2 were determined by comparing experimental and calculated ECD spectra. Furthermore, the in vivo anti-Alzheimer's disease activities of 1-5 were evaluated using Caenorhabditis elegans AD pathological model. Among all isolated compounds, salcasin A (1) significantly delayed AD-like symptoms of worm paralysis, which may be a potential anti-AD candidate agent.

Metabolomic Profiling and DNA-Fingerprinting of Newly Recorded White-Flowered Populations of Salvia lanigera Poir. in Egypt.

Salvia lanigera Poir. is a small herbaceous perennial species with violet flowers that grows in low-altitude deserts, and sandy loam. During the collection of S. lanigera, unusual populations with white flowers were found. Therefore, the two populations (violet- and white-flowered) were subjected to comparative investigations, including DNA fingerprinting, chemical composition, and biological evaluation. The two populations showed DNA variations, with 6.66 % polymorphism in ISSR and 25 % in SCoT markers. GC/MS and UHPLC/HRMS of aqueous methanol extracts, led to the tentative identification of 43 and 50 compounds in both populations. In addition, the structures of nine compounds, including four first-time reported compounds in the species, were confirmed by NMR. Furthermore, the total extracts exhibited weak radical scavenging activity against DPPH and a lower inhibitory effect towards acetylcholinesterase. In conclusion, the obtained data suggested that the white-colored flower could be an additional important character record for the Egyptian S. lanigera.

In vitro Safety Assessment of Extracts and Compounds From Plants as Sunscreen Ingredients.

This work investigated the safety of extracts obtained from plants growing in Colombia, which have previously shown UV-filter/antigenotoxic properties. The compounds in plant extracts obtained by the supercritical fluid (CO2) extraction method were identified using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis. Cytotoxicity measured as cytotoxic concentration 50% (CC50) and genotoxicity of the plant extracts and some compounds were studied in human fibroblasts using the trypan blue exclusion assay and the Comet assay, respectively. The extracts from Pipper eriopodon and Salvia aratocensis species and the compound trans-ß-caryophyllene were clearly cytotoxic to human fibroblasts. Conversely, Achyrocline satureioides, Chromolaena pellia, and Lippia origanoides extracts were relatively less cytotoxic with CC50 values of 173, 184, and 89 µg/mL, respectively. The C. pellia and L. origanoides extracts produced some degree of DNA breaks at cytotoxic concentrations. The cytotoxicity of the studied compounds was as follows, with lower CC50 values representing the most cytotoxic compounds: resveratrol (91 µM) > pinocembrin (144 µM) > quercetin (222 µM) > titanium dioxide (704 µM). Quercetin was unique among the compounds assayed in being genotoxic to human fibroblasts. Our work indicates that phytochemicals can be cytotoxic and genotoxic, demonstrating the need to establish safe concentrations of these extracts for their potential use in cosmetics.

Evolution and chemical diversity of the volatile compounds in Salvia species.

INTRODUCTION: The plant essential oils are composed of volatile compounds and have significant value in preventing and treating neurological diseases, anxiety, depression, among others. The genus Salvia has been shown to be an important medicinal resource, especially the aerial parts of genus Salvia, which are rich in volatile compounds; however, the chemical diversity and distribution patterns of volatile compounds in Salvia species are still unknown. OBJECTIVE: The work is performed to analyse the chemical diversity and distribution patterns of volatile compounds in genus Salvia. METHODS: The genomic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to explore the evolution and chemical diversity of Salvia volatile compounds. Initially, the genetic relationship of genus Salvia was revealed by phylogenetic tree that was constructed based on SNPs. And then, GC-MS was applied to explore the chemical diversity of volatile compounds. RESULTS: The results indicated that the volatile compounds were mainly monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and aliphatic compounds. The genomic SNPs divided species involved in this work into four branches. The volatile compounds in the first and second branches were mainly sesquiterpenoids and monoterpenoids, respectively. Species in the third branch contained more aliphatic compounds and sesquiterpenoids. And those in the fourth branch were also rich in monoterpenoids but had relatively simple chemical compositions. CONCLUSION: This study offered new insights into the phylogenetic relationships besides chemistry diversity and distribution pattern of volatile compounds of genus Salvia, providing theoretical guidance for the investigations and development of secondary metabolites.

New triterpenoids from the aerial parts of the Uygur medicine Salvia deserta.

Phytochemical investigation on the aerial parts of Salvia deserta led to the isolation of eight new pentacyclic triterpenoids including three oleanane- (1 - 3) and five ursane-type (4 - 8) triterpenoids, whose structures were elucidated based on extensive spectroscopic analysis and quantum chemical calculation. Weak immunosuppressive potency was observed for compounds 1, 2, and 4 - 8 via inhibiting the secretion of cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS-induced macrophages RAW264.7 at 20 µM. In addition, compounds 1, 2, and 4 - 6 exhibited moderate protective activity on t-BHP-induced oxidative injury in HepG2 cells.

Investigating the effect of wall material and pressure homogenisation on encapsulation parameters and thermal stability in chia seed oil microcapsules.

AIM: To evaluate the effect of different wall material (WM) matrices followed by homogenisation to encapsulate chia seed oil (CSO) using freeze drying technology. METHODS: CSO was encapsulated using three ratios (100/0, 50/50, and 100/0) of two WM matrices: MTS/WPC (modified tapioca starch-whey protein concentrate) and MD/WPC (maltodextrin-whey protein concentrate). The evaluation included encapsulation efficiency (EE), oxidative stability, and α-linolenic acid (ALA) retention. Homogenised microcapsules (-H) were then assessed for storage and thermal stability, along with cumulative oil release. RESULTS: The MD-WPC-H 50/50 microcapsules had superior EE (97.32%), higher ALA retention (60.2%), storage stability (up to 30 days), higher thermal stability (up to 700 °C), and desirable oil release in simulated condition. CONCLUSION: Selecting suitable WM and homogenisation is key for improving EE, storage, thermal stability, and targeted release. The CSO microcapsule can serve as a functional ingredient to improve the quality of diverse food products.

Green Synthesis of Novel Silver Nanoparticles Using Salvia blepharophylla and Salvia greggii: Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Potential and Effect on Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens.

In the face of evolving healthcare challenges, the utilization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has emerged as a compelling solution due to their unique properties and versatile applications. The aim of this study was the synthesis and characterization of novel AgNPs (SB-AgNPs and SG-AgNPs, respectively) using Salvia blepharophylla and Salvia greggii leaf extracts and the evaluation of their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic activities. Several analytical instrumental techniques were utilized for the characterization of SB-AgNPs and SG-AgNPs, including UV-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier transmission infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). FTIR analysis identified various functional groups in the leaf extracts and nanoparticles, suggesting the involvement of phytochemicals as reducing and stabilizing agents. High-resolution TEM images displayed predominantly spherical nanoparticles with average sizes of 52.4 nm for SB-AgNPs and 62.5 nm for SG-AgNPs. Both SB-AgNPs and SG-AgNPs demonstrated remarkable antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes and Gram-negative bacteria Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli. SB-AgNPs and SG-AgNPs also exhibited 90.2 ± 1.34% and 89.5 ± 1.5% DPPH scavenging and 86.5 ± 1.7% and 80.5 ± 1.2% α-amylase inhibition, respectively, at a concentration of 100 µg mL-1. Overall, AgNPs synthesized using S. blepharophylla and Salvia greggii leaf extracts may serve as potential candidates for antibacterial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic agents. Consequently, this study provides viable solutions to mitigate the current crisis of antibiotic resistance and to efficiently combat antimicrobial infections and Type 2 diabetes.

Chemometric Analysis Evidencing the Variability in the Composition of Essential Oils in 10 Salvia Species from Different Taxonomic Sections or Phylogenetic Clades.

Essential oil (EO) of Salvia spp. has been widely used for culinary purposes and in perfumery and cosmetics, as well as having beneficial effects on human health. The present study aimed to investigate the quantitative and qualitative variations in EOs in wild-growing and cultivated pairs of samples from members in four Salvia sections or three clades, namely S. argentea L. (Sect. Aethiopis; Clade I-C), S. ringens Sm. (Sect. Eusphace; Clade I-D), S. verticillata L. (Sect. Hemisphace; Clade I-B), S. amplexicaulis Lam., and S. pratensis L. (Sect. Plethiosphace; Clade I-C). Furthermore, the natural variability in EO composition due to different genotypes adapted in different geographical and environmental conditions was examined by employing members of three Salvia sections or two phylogenetic clades, namely S. sclarea L. (six samples; Sect. Aethiopis or Clade I-C), S. ringens (three samples; Sect. Eusphace or Clade I-D), and S. amplexicaulis (five samples; Sect. Plethiosphace or Clade I-C). We also investigated the EO composition of four wild-growing species of two Salvia sections, i.e., S. aethiopis L., S. candidissima Vahl, and S. teddii of Sect. Aethiopis, as well as the cultivated material of S. virgata Jacq. (Sect. Plethiosphace), all belonging to Clade I-C. The EO composition of the Greek endemic S. teddii is presented herein only for the first time. Taken together, the findings of previous studies are summarized and critically discussed with the obtained results. Chemometric analysis (PCA, HCA, and clustered heat map) was used to identify the sample relationships based on their chemical classes, resulting in the classification of two distinct groups. These can be further explored in assistance of classical or modern taxonomic Salvia studies.

The Effect of Salvia tomentosa Miller Extracts, Rich in Rosmarinic, Salvianolic and Lithospermic Acids, on Bacteria Causing Opportunistic Infections.

Methanolic-aqueous extracts of Salvia tomentosa Miller roots, aerial parts, and inflorescences were examined for their content of polyphenolic derivatives and the antimicrobial and cytotoxic effect. In the polyphenolic-rich profile, rosmarinic, salvianolic, and lithospermic acids along with various derivatives were predominant. A total of twenty phenolic compounds were identified using the UPLC/DAD/qTOF-MS technique. These were caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid derivatives, lithospermic acid derivatives, salvianolic acids B, F, and K derivatives, as well as sagerinic acid, although rosmarinic acid (426-525 mg/100 g of dry weight-D.W.) and salvianolic acid B (83-346.5 mg/100 g D.W.) were significantly predominant in the metabolic profile. Strong antibacterial activity of S. tomentosa extracts was observed against Staphylococcus epidermidis (MIC/MBC = 0.625 mg/mL) and Bacillus cereus (MIC = 0.312-1.25 mg/mL). The extracts showed low cytotoxicity towards the reference murine fibroblasts L929 and strong cytotoxicity to human AGS gastric adenocarcinoma epithelial cells in the MTT reduction assay. The observed cytotoxic effect in cancer cells was strongest for the roots of 2-year-old plant extracts.