Game-Theoretical Model of Retroactive Hepatitis B Vaccination in China.

Hepatitis B (HepB) is one of the most common infectious diseases affecting over two billion people worldwide. About one third of all HepB cases are in China. In recent years, China made significant efforts to implement a nationwide HepB vaccination program and reduced the number of unvaccinated infants from 30 to 10%. However, many individuals still remain unprotected, particularly those born before 2003. Consequently, a catch-up retroactive vaccination is an important and potentially cost-effective way to reduce HepB prevalence. In this paper, we analyze a game theoretical model of HepB dynamics that incorporates government-provided vaccination at birth coupled with voluntary retroactive vaccinations. Given the uncertainty about the long-term efficacy of the HepB vaccinations, we study several scenarios. When the waning rate is relatively high, we show that this retroactive vaccination should be a necessary component of any HepB eradication effort. When the vaccine offers long-lasting protection, the voluntary retroactive vaccination brings the disease incidence to sufficiently low levels. Also, we find that the optimal vaccination rates are almost independent of the vaccination coverage at birth. Moreover, it is in an individual's self-interest to vaccinate (and potentially re-vaccinate) at a rate just slightly above the vaccine waning rate.

Valuing the cost of improving Chilean primary vaccination: a cost minimization analysis of a hexavalent vaccine.

BACKGROUND: The phased withdrawal of oral polio vaccine (OPV) and the introduction of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) is central to the polio 'end-game' strategy. METHODS: We analyzed the cost implications in Chile of a switch from the vaccination scheme consisting of a pentavalent vaccine with whole-cell pertussis component (wP) plus IPV/OPV vaccines to a scheme with a hexavalent vaccine with acellular pertussis component (aP) and IPV (Hexaxim®) from a societal perspective. Cost data were collected from a variety of sources including national estimates and previous vaccine studies. All costs were expressed in 2017 prices (US$ 1.00 = $Ch 666.26). RESULTS: The overall costs associated with the vaccination scheme (4 doses of pentavalent vaccine plus 1 dose IPV and 3 doses OPV) from a societal perspective was estimated to be US$ 12.70 million, of which US$ 8.84 million were associated with the management of adverse events related to wP. In comparison, the cost associated with the 4-dose scheme with a hexavalent vaccine (based upon the PAHO reference price) was US$ 19.76 million. The cost of switching to the hexavalent vaccine would be an additional US$ 6.45 million. Overall, depending on the scenario, the costs of switching to the hexavalent scheme would range from an additional US$ 2.62 million to US$ 6.45 million compared with the current vaccination scheme. CONCLUSIONS: The switch to the hexavalent vaccine schedule in Chile would lead to additional acquisition costs, which would be partially offset by improved logistics, and a reduction in adverse events associated with the current vaccines.

Survey of Impediments to Prevention of Mother-to-infant Transmission of Hepatitis B Virus by International Societies.

OBJECTIVE: Mother-to-infant transmission (MIT) is the leading cause of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections globally. The aim of this international study was to assess the impediments to prevention of (MIT) of HBV. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was developed by the Federation of the International Societies for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. (FISPGHAN) The survey was sent to HBV experts of the 5-member societies of FISPGHAN, and 63 of 91 countries/regions responded. Main outcome measures include percentage of countries having vaccine programs, timing of the first dose of HBV vaccine, availability of HBV vaccine for outborn neonates, payment of HBV vaccine and hepatitis B immune globulin, screening HBV markers during pregnancy, and antivirals to highly infectious pregnant mothers. RESULTS: Among the participating countries/regions, 11% did not implement infant HBV immunization programs. The first dose of vaccine was given >24 hours in 36% of the total countries and 100% of African countries. The recommended birth dose was unavailable for outborn neonates in 45% of the total countries, including 92% of African and 50% of Latin American countries/regions. During pregnancy, 44% countries do not screen maternal viral markers, and 46% do not provide third trimester antiviral therapy for highly viremic pregnant mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated multiple obstacles to achieving the goal of preventing MIT of HBV. Comprehensive public health programs to enhance vaccine coverage rate, supply HBV vaccine for out-born neonates, screening maternal HBV markers, treating highly viremic pregnant mothers are proposed to overcome these obstacles and achieve the goal of preventing MIT of HBV.

Health professionals' acceptance and willingness to pay for hepatitis B virus vaccination in Gondar City Administration governmental health institutions, Northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a global public health problem. The burden of the disease is high in low and middle income countries like Ethiopia. However, for highly vulnerable groups such as health professionals, vaccination coverage is a major issue in the developing countries where health professionals are expected to pay for vaccination. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess health professionals' acceptance and willingness to pay (WTP) and associated factors for vaccination against HBV. METHODS: Cross-sectional study was conducted from March to April, 2017 in Gondar city administration governmental health institutions among 423 health professionals. Simple random sampling method was employed to select the study participants. Data were collected using self- administered questionnaire. Tobit model was used to analyze the determinants of WTP and the maximum amount of money the individuals might pay for HBV vaccination. P-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULT: A total of 423 health professionals (physicians, nurses, midwives, laboratory technicians/technologists, and others) participated in the study with a response rate of 100, and 62.4% of them were willing to pay for HBV vaccination. The mean amount of money the participants might pay for HBV vaccination was 325.83 ± 283.46 ETB (US$ 14.39 ± 12.52). The study indicated that the WTP for HBV vaccination of health professionals from health centers was 179.41 ETB less compared to health professionals from hospital. The WTP for HBV vaccination of the participants who had no experience of seeing previous patients with HBV was 157.87 ETB less compared to participants who had experience of seeing previous patients with HBV. As monthly income of the study participants increased by one ETB, the WTP was increased by 0.027 ETB. CONCLUSION: The study revealed that the mean amount of money the participants might pay for HBV vaccination was much less than the market price for HBV vaccination. Type of workplace and experience of seeing/observing patients with HBV, and income were the predictors of WTP for HBV vaccination. Availing the vaccine with affordable cost in governmental health institutions may increase WTP of health professionals for HBV vaccination.

[Economic evaluation on strategy for preventing mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B in Zhejiang Province].

Objective: To evaluate the cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness of current strategy for preventing mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of hepatitis B virus. Methods: A decision tree model with the Markov process was developed and simulated over the lifetime of a birth cohort in Zhejiang Province in 2016. The current PMTCT strategy was compared with universal vaccination and non-vaccination. Costs were assessed from social perspective. Benefits were the savings from reduced costs associated with disease and effectiveness were measured by quality-adjusted of life-years (QALY) gained. The net present value (NPV), cost-benefit ratio (BCR) and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) were calculated. Univariate and Probabilistic Sensitivity Analyses (PSA) were performed to assess parameter uncertainties. The parameters of costs and utilities value of hepatitis B-related disease came from the results of the field survey, which were obtained by face-to-face questionnaire survey combined with inpatient medical records, including eight county and municipal hospitals in Jinhua, Jiaxing and Taizhou. A total of 626 outpatients and 523 inpatient patients were investigated. The annual total costs of infection was calculated by combining the costs of outpatient and inpatient. Results: The PMTCT strategy showed a net-gain as 38 323.78 CNY per person, with BCR as 21.10, which was higher than 36 357.80 CNY per person and 13.58 respectively of universal vaccination. Compared with universal vaccination, the PMTCT strategy would save 2 787.07 CNY per additional QALY gained for every person, indicating that PMTCT would be cost-saving. The most important parameters that could affect BCR and ICER were the vaccine coverage rate and costs of hepatitis B related diseases respectively. The PSA showed the PMTCT strategy was preferable as it would gain more QALY and save costs. Conclusions: The PMTCT strategy appeared as highly cost-beneficial and highly cost-effective. High vaccination rate was a key factor of high economic value.

How to improve access to therapy in hepatitis B patients.

Despite the availability of a preventive vaccine and active antiviral treatments that stop disease progression and reduce the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatitis B is still a major public health problem. Only an estimated 10% of the 257 million people living with HBV have been diagnosed and as few as 1% are being adequately treated. Barriers to diagnosis and treatment include: (i) limited awareness and lack of knowledge about HBV infection and HBV-related diseases; (ii) under-diagnosis with insufficient screening and referral to care; (iii) limited treatment due to drug availability, costs, reimbursement policies and the need for long-term or life-long therapy. These barriers and the actions needed to improve access to treatment are strongly influenced by the prevalence of infection and affect middle-high vs low-middle income countries differently, where most HBV carriers are found. In high-prevalence regions and low-to middle-income countries, the main challenges are availability and cost while in low-prevalence regions and middle-to high-income countries low screening rates, public awareness, social stigma and discrimination play an important role. Overcoming these challenges on a global scale is a complex clinical and public health challenge and multilateral commitment from pharmaceutical companies, governments, funders and the research community is lacking. The new WHO 2016 Global Health Sector Strategy on viral hepatitis targets testing and treatment, suggesting that important but strong actions are needed from advocacy groups, scientific societies and funding agencies to foster awareness and access to cure.

Uptake of hepatitis B vaccination and its determinants among health care workers in a tertiary health facility in Enugu, South-East, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B vaccination is the most effective method of prevention for hepatitis B virus infection. It is a major public health problem in Nigeria, and health workers are at increased risk. This study determined the uptake of hepatitis B vaccination and assessed its determinants among health care workers (HCWs). METHODS: A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted between July and August, 2016 using self-administered structured questionnaires among 3132 HCWs in University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu, South-East, Nigeria. Data was analysed using SPSS version 22. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors that influenced uptake of vaccination. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the health facility. RESULTS: The uptake of hepatitis B vaccination was 14.2% (n = 445). The number of doses received were: 3 doses (218/3132, 48.9%), 2 doses (71/3132, 16.0%), and one dose (156/3132, 35.1%). The reasons for non-uptake of vaccination included: cost of vaccine 48 (10.8%), 'did not believe they could be infected' 28 (6.6%), long vaccination schedule, and lack of time 150 (35.1%). The Odds for uptake of hepatitis B vaccination were 22% lower among nurses compared to doctors (AOR = 0.78, 95% CI = 0.54-0.98, P = 0.037). It increased with increasing age (AOR = 1.30, 95% CI = 1.08-1.59, P <  0.001), increasing duration of work in the hospital (AOR = 1.19, 95% CI = 1.09-1.32, P = 0.032), and was about twice higher among those that had tertiary education than others that had less education (AOR = 1.96, 95 CI = 0.76-5.07, P = 0.164). CONCLUSIONS: The uptake of hepatitis B vaccination was low among HCWs in Enugu, Nigeria. Age, staff category, and duration of work in the hospital, were independently associated with hepatitis B vaccination. Provision of adequate hepatitis B surface antigen screening facilities and vaccination sites where the cost of vaccination is subsidized for all HCWs is recommended.

Hepatitis B Vaccination, Screening, and Linkage to Care: Best Practice Advice From the American College of Physicians and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Background: Vaccination, screening, and linkage to care can reduce the burden of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. However, recommendations vary among organizations, and their implementation has been suboptimal. The American College of Physicians' High Value Care Task Force and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention developed this article to present best practice statements for hepatitis B vaccination, screening, and linkage to care. Methods: A narrative literature review of clinical guidelines, systematic reviews, randomized trials, and intervention studies on hepatitis B vaccination, screening, and linkage to care published between January 2005 and June 2017 was conducted. Best Practice Advice 1: Clinicians should vaccinate against hepatitis B virus (HBV) in all unvaccinated adults (including pregnant women) at risk for infection due to sexual, percutaneous, or mucosal exposure; health care and public safety workers at risk for blood exposure; adults with chronic liver disease, end-stage renal disease (including hemodialysis patients), or HIV infection; travelers to HBV-endemic regions; and adults seeking protection from HBV infection. Best Practice Advice 2: Clinicians should screen (hepatitis B surface antigen, antibody to hepatitis B core antigen, and antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen) for HBV in high-risk persons, including persons born in countries with 2% or higher HBV prevalence, men who have sex with men, persons who inject drugs, HIV-positive persons, household and sexual contacts of HBV-infected persons, persons requiring immunosuppressive therapy, persons with end-stage renal disease (including hemodialysis patients), blood and tissue donors, persons infected with hepatitis C virus, persons with elevated alanine aminotransferase levels (≥19 IU/L for women and ≥30 IU/L for men), incarcerated persons, pregnant women, and infants born to HBV-infected mothers. Best Practice Advice 3: Clinicians should provide or refer all patients identified with HBV (HBsAg-positive) for posttest counseling and hepatitis B-directed care.

[Economic evaluation and prediction of hepatitis B immunization strategy in Shenzhen, China].

Objective: To verify the costs, benefit and effectiveness of hepatitis B immunoprophylaxis strategies in Shenzhen during 2006-2030. Methods: The markov model was constructed to reflect the reality of the newborn vaccination and prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) strategy, the cost, benefit and effectiveness during 2006-2015 and 2016-2030 was evaluated and predicted by the model. The model was constructed with the basic parameters such as the positive rate of hepatitis B surface antibody, perinatal HBV infection rate, the screening rate and positive rate of HBsAg of pregnant women, the utility value of hepatitis B and the parameters of markov model. and the coverage rates, vaccination fee of hepatitis B and the expenditures of patients with HB-related diseases.The costs were calculated from the payer, medical-care and all society perspective. The effectiveness and benefits of the strategy were evaluated and predicted by the numbers of HBV infection and the patients with HBV-related diseases prevented, life years (LYs), quality adjusted life years (QALYs), the net benefits (NBs) and benefit cost ratio (BCRs). Results: From the payer, medical-care and all society perspectives, the costs for the strategy were 153 million Yuan, 5.51 billion Yuan and 10.92 billion Yuan, respectively from 2006 to 2030 of which the forecast costs for 2016-2030 were 120 million Yuan, 3.87 billion yuan and 7.81 billion yuan. During the year 2006-2030, the numbers of HBV infection and the HBV-related diseases was 2.48 million, more than 1.335 million LYs and 1.619 million QALYs should be obtained from the strategy implemented. From medical-care and all society perspectives, NBs should be 88.68 billion yuan and 150.13 billion yuan with the BCRs of 17.08 and 14.75, respectively. Particularly, the NBs value of 22.37 billion yuan and 37.98 billion yuan and the BCR value of 14.62 and 13.20 was calculated for the past period, but the future NBs of 66.31 billion yuan and 112.15 billion yuan and BCR of 18.12 and 15.36 in the year 2016-2030. The further benefits were increased evidently in the future. Conclusion: The hepatitis B immunization in Shenzhen has a high economic effectivenee and benefits, and it is worth to invest sustainably.

Public health impact of Infanrix hexa™ (DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib) reimbursement: A study programme in France. Part 2: Evolution of the acceptability of infants' vaccination against hepatitis B in general and pediatric practices - the PRALINE study.

BACKGROUND: The reimbursement of the hexavalent vaccine (Infanrix hexa™), comprising the DTPa-IPV-Hib components and the hepatitis B recombinant in a single vaccine, was approved in France in March of 2008. The impact of its reimbursement on physicians' decisions to vaccinate infants against hepatitis B was assessed in a study conducted with general practitioners and pediatricians. METHODS: The PRALINE study (NCT01777074) was a national, cross-sectional, repeated study with two measurement periods (T1 and T2) that measured the changes in physicians' acceptance of hepatitis B vaccination of infants before and for the 3 years after the approval of the hexavalent vaccine reimbursement. Two patient registers were created for each measurement period to enroll the first 15 12- to 15-month-old infants and the first 15 24- to 27-month-old children seen by the practitioners. The proportion of eligible children receiving a hepatitis B vaccine for each physician's practice was calculated. Practitioners also answered a vaccination practice questionnaire via telephone interviews. RESULTS: Across the two study periods, 418 general practitioners and 463 pediatricians were recruited and responded to the telephone interview on their vaccination practices. The overall number of children included in the study in both study periods reached almost 20,000. In the general practitioners group, there was a significant increase in the proportion of physicians "practicing hepatitis B vaccination" (i.e., at least 50% of eligible children receiving the initial hepatitis B vaccination) in children 24-27 months old (79% T2 versus 47% T1, P-value [P]<0.001). Similarly, the proportion of pediatricians initiating hepatitis B vaccination increased from 51% (T1) to 94% (T2) (P<0.0001). General practitioners offered hepatitis B vaccination to infants more systematically in the second study period (87% T2 versus 73% T1, P<0.001) and also suggested the use of the hexavalent vaccine to more patients after reimbursement (92% T2 versus 78% T1, P<0.0001). The proportion of pediatricians offering vaccination to every infant was high at T1 (94%) and remained steady (97%) with a high use of the hexavalent vaccine (94% T1 and 96% T2). CONCLUSION: The PRALINE study shows a significant and immediate change in the hepatitis B vaccination practices of general practitioners and pediatricians following hexavalent vaccine reimbursement with a significant increase in hepatitis B vaccine coverage in infants.

Public health impact of Infanrix hexa (DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib) reimbursement: A study programme in France. Part 1: Evolution of hepatitis B vaccine coverage rates in infants aged less than 27 months, in the general population - the PopCorn study.

BACKGROUND: Reimbursement of the hexavalent vaccine (Infanrix hexa) comprising the DTPa-IPV-Hib components and the hepatitis B valence in a single vaccine was decided in March 2008 in France. The impact of its reimbursement on the hepatitis B vaccine coverage rate was assessed in a study conducted in the general population prior to and after implementation of the reimbursement policy. METHODS: The PopCorn study (NCT01782794) was a national, cross-sectional and repeated study, with four assessment periods over 3 years, from 2009 to 2012, to assess the hepatitis B vaccine coverage in 12- to 15- and 24- to 27-month-old children, vaccinated between 2007 and 2011 and selected by the quota sampling method. Face-to-face interviews were conducted at their homes and vaccination status was collected using their child's health record. Parents were also interviewed on their perceptions and acceptance of hepatitis B vaccination. Three indicators were calculated to assess hepatitis B vaccination coverage: proportions of infants with at least one dose before 6 months of age, with at least two doses before 6 months of age and with a complete schedule at 24 months of age. RESULTS: A total of 4903 children were enrolled in the study. An overall significant increase (P-value [P<0.05]) of the three indicators of interest over the four periods of time was observed for both age groups. The proportion of children receiving hepatitis B vaccination before 6 months increased from 21% at baseline (before vaccine reimbursement) to almost 75% at the last assessment period in 2012. More than 60% of 24- to 27-month-old children received a complete schedule in 2012 compared to 33% at baseline. No significant increases in the proportions of parents "favourable" and "moderately in favour" of hepatitis B vaccination were observed across the four evaluation periods (respectively, 17-22% and 48-50%, P=0.09). CONCLUSION: The rapid increase of hepatitis B vaccination coverage suggests a significant change in hepatitis B vaccination practice related to the hexavalent vaccine's reimbursement. This change was observed in a context of stability regarding parents' perceptions and acceptance of hepatitis B vaccination and of coverage rates for other infant vaccinations.

Estimated costs attributable to events of "out-of-temperature" in the stockpiling of hexavalent vaccines occurring in Italy.

BACKGROUND: Antigens contained in vaccines are inherently unstable biologically; such a characteristic is conferred by their three-dimensional structure. Preserving the ability of the vaccines to protect against disease is necessary to ensure the supervision and monitoring of all steps of the cold chain. DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib vaccine (Infanrix hexaTM, GSK Vaccines, Belgium) is designed to prevent disease due to diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (DTP), hepatitis B virus (HBV), poliomyelitis and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib); it was first licensed for use in Europe in 2000 and is currently licensed in at least 95 countries. Since October 2013, more than 102 million doses of GSK's DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib vaccine have been distributed globally, with nearly 15 million doses distributed in Italy. DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib components are stable up to a temperature of 25°C for 72 hours. Lacking of officially approved stability data may generate some concern in case of cold chain accidents. METHODS: An analysis based on collected data was carried out to estimate potential costs attributable to events of "out-of-temperature" in the stockpiling of hexavalent vaccines occurring in Italy in 2014. RESULTS: The analysis, based on real data, documented that the loss for the National Health Service (NHS) was in the range of 100,000 - 400,000 euros in one year. However, the amount of money that in principle could have been lost would have ranged between nearly half and one million euros/year. CONCLUSIONS: A substantial loss of money was avoided thanks to the availability of officially approved stability data for GSK's DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib vaccine.

The relationship between pediatric combination vaccines and market effects.

We explored market factors that affect pediatric combination vaccine uptake in the US public-sector pediatric vaccine market. We specifically examined how Pediarix and Pentacel earned a place in the 2009-2012 lowest overall cost formulary. Direct competition between Pediarix and Pentacel is driven by the indirect presence of the Merck Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine and the Recommended Childhood Immunization Schedule requirement for a hepatitis B birth dose. The resulting analysis suggests that Pentacel would never have earned a place in the lowest overall cost formulary for 2009-2012 federal contract prices for any cost of an injection unless the Merck H influenzae type b advantage was ignored and the hepatitis B birth dose administration cost was recognized by health care providers in designing the lowest overall cost formularies.

Burden and indirect cost of vaccine-preventable cancer mortality in Europe.

BACKGROUND: The economic and mortality burden of cancer is high worldwide. In Europe, cancer was responsible for 1.3 million deaths in 2020 and incurred an estimated cost of €50 billion from premature mortality. Human papillomavirus (HPV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) are among the leading causes of infection-related cancers despite the availability of effective vaccines against these infections. This analysis estimated the mortality and productivity loss of HBV- and HPV-associated cancers that could be preventable through vaccination across European regions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Institute for Health Metrics Evaluation (IHME) data were used to estimate mortality, years of life lost (YLL), and the value of years of life lost (VYLL) from five HBV- and HPV-related cancers (oral cavity, oropharynx, larynx, cervical, and liver cancers) across 40 European countries in 2019. Preventable deaths and YLL were estimated based on fractions attributable to infections. Data from the World Bank on GDP per capita were used to estimate the VYLL. The robustness of these results was explored with sensitivity and scenario analyses. RESULTS: In 2019, 31,906 cancer deaths resulted in an economic burden of €18,521,614,725 due to productivity losses across Europe. HPV-related cervical cancer had the highest mortality (19,473 deaths) and economic burden (€10,706,253,185). HBV-related liver cancer and HPV-related larynx, oral cavity, and oropharynx cancers also had a substantial burden, particularly in males. Eastern Europe had the highest YLL (308,179; 39%) and Western Europe was responsible for the greatest VYLL (€8,281,306,504; 45%), although the highest VYLL per death was in Northern Europe (€923,638). HPV-related oropharynx cancer had the highest VYLL per death (€656,607). CONCLUSION: HPV- and HBV-related cancer deaths are associated with substantial mortality and productivity losses in Europe, which could be reduced by the continued prioritization and implementation of prophylactic public health measures including systematic awareness, vaccination, and screening efforts.

A randomised controlled trial of financial incentives to increase hepatitis B vaccination completion among people who inject drugs in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of modest financial incentives in increasing completion of an accelerated 3-dose hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccination schedule (0, 7, 21days) among people who inject drugs (PWID). METHODS: Randomised controlled trial. Participants were randomly allocated to receive $30 Australian Dollars cash following receipt of vaccine doses two and three ('incentive condition'), or standard care ('control condition'). Serologically confirmed HBV-susceptible PWID. Two inner-city health services and a field study site in Sydney, Australia. The primary outcome was completion of the vaccination series. Additional assessments included self-reported demographic, drug use and treatment, and risk-taking histories. RESULTS: Compared to the control condition, significantly more participants in the incentive condition received all three vaccine doses, under intention-to-treat analyses (n=139; 87% versus 66%; p=.004); and within the specified window periods under per protocol analyses (n=107 received three vaccine doses; 92% versus 67%; p=.001). Multivariate analysis indicated that the incentive condition and longer injecting histories significantly increased the likelihood of series completion. Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islanders were significantly less likely to complete the series. CONCLUSIONS: Modest financial incentives, per-dose, increased adherence to the accelerated HBV vaccination schedule among PWID. Results have implications for increasing HBV and, potentially, other vaccine-preventable infections, among PWID.

Hepatitis B virus exposure and vaccination in a cohort of people who inject drugs: what has been the impact of targeted free vaccination?

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Forty percent of new hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections in Australia occur in people who inject drugs (PWID); long-term infection carries the risk of serious liver disease. HBV incidence among Australian PWID has not been measured since the advent of targeted (2001) and adolescent school-based "catch-up" (1998) vaccination programs. We measured HBV incidence and prevalence in a cohort of PWID in Melbourne, Australia and examined demographic and behavioral correlates of exposure and vaccination. METHODS: Community-recruited PWID were surveyed about blood-borne virus risk behaviors and their sera tested for HBV markers approximately three-monthly over three years. Incidence was assessed using prospectively collected data. A cross-sectional design was used to examine prevalence of HBV exposure and vaccination at baseline. Poisson regression was used to identify correlates of HBV exposure and vaccination. RESULTS: At baseline, 33.1% of participants (114/344) had been vaccinated against HBV, 40.4% (139/344) had been exposed (previously or currently infected), and 26.5% (91/344) were susceptible. HBV incidence was 15.7 per 100 person-years. Independent associations with HBV exposure included female gender, South-East Asian ethnicity, drug treatment in the past three months, injecting in prison, and prior exposure to hepatitis C virus. Independent associations with vaccination included being ≤ 25 years old, reporting HBV vaccination, and never having been to prison. CONCLUSIONS: HBV infection continues at high incidence among Australian PWID despite the introduction of free vaccination programs. Innovative methods are needed to encourage PWID to complete HBV vaccination.

Universal Hepatitis B Antibody Screening and Vaccination in Pregnancy: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the cost effectiveness of universal screening for hepatitis B immunity and vaccination among pregnant women in the United States. METHODS: We designed a decision-analytic model to evaluate the outcomes, costs, and cost effectiveness associated with universal hepatitis B virus (HBV) immunity screening in pregnancy with vaccination of susceptible individuals compared with no screening. A theoretical cohort of 3.6 million women, the approximate number of annual live births in the United States, was used. Outcomes included cases of HBV, hepatocellular carcinoma, decompensated cirrhosis, liver transplant and death, in addition to cost and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). Model inputs were derived from the literature, and the willingness-to-pay threshold was $50,000 per QALY. Univariate sensitivity analyses and Monte Carlo simulation models were performed to evaluate the robustness of the results. RESULTS: In a theoretical cohort of 3.6 million women, universal HBV immunity screening and vaccination resulted in 1,702 fewer cases of HBV, seven fewer cases of decompensated cirrhosis, four fewer liver transplants, and 11 fewer deaths over the life expectancy of a woman after pregnancy. Universal screening and vaccination were found to be cost effective, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $1,890 per QALY. Sensitivity analyses demonstrated the model was robust even when the prevalence of HBV immunity was high and the annual risk of HBV acquisition low. CONCLUSION: Among pregnant women in the United States, universal HBV immunity screening and vaccination of susceptible persons is cost effective compared with not routinely screening and vaccinating.

Cost-effectiveness of nationwide hepatitis B catch-up vaccination among children and adolescents in China.

UNLABELLED: Liver disease and liver cancer associated with childhood-acquired chronic hepatitis B are leading causes of death among adults in China. Despite expanded newborn hepatitis B vaccination programs, approximately 20% of children under age 5 years and 40% of children aged 5 to 19 years remain unprotected from hepatitis B. Although immunizing them will be beneficial, no studies have examined the cost-effectiveness of hepatitis B catch-up vaccination in an endemic country like China. We examined the cost-effectiveness of a hypothetical nationwide free hepatitis B catch-up vaccination program in China for unvaccinated children and adolescents aged 1 to 19 years. We used a Markov model for disease progression and infections. Cost variables were based on data published by the Chinese Ministry of Health, peer-reviewed Chinese and English publications, and the GAVI Alliance. We measured costs (2008 U.S. dollars and Chinese renminbi), quality-adjusted life years, and incremental cost-effectiveness from a societal perspective. Our results show that hepatitis B catch-up vaccination for children and adolescents in China is cost-saving across a range of parameters, even for adolescents aged 15 to 19 years old. We estimate that if all 150 million susceptible children under 19 were vaccinated, more than 8 million infections and 65,000 deaths due to hepatitis B would be prevented. CONCLUSION: The adoption of a nationwide free catch-up hepatitis B vaccination program for unvaccinated children and adolescents in China, in addition to ongoing efforts to improve birth dose and newborn vaccination coverage, will be cost-saving and can generate significant population-wide health benefits. The success of such a program in China could serve as a model for other endemic countries.