National and regional population attributable fractions for anemia risk factors (iron, folate, and vitamin B12) in Belize: potential impact of fortification.

Objective: To estimate the national and regional population attributable fraction (PAF) and potential number of preventable anemia cases for three nutritional risk factors (iron, red blood cell folate [RBCF], and vitamin B12 deficiencies) among women of childbearing age in Belize. Methods: A national probability-based household and micronutrient survey capturing sociodemographic and health information was conducted among 937 nonpregnant Belizean women aged 15-49 years. Blood samples were collected to determine hemoglobin, ferritin, alpha-1-glycoprotein (AGP), RBCF, and vitamin B12 status. All analyses used sample weights and design variables to reflect a complex sample survey. Logistic regression was used to determine adjusted prevalence risk (aPR) ratios, which were then used to estimate national and regional PAF for anemia. Results: The overall prevalence of anemia (hemoglobin <12 g/dL) was 21.2% (95% CI [18.7, 25.3]). The prevalence of anemia was significantly greater among women with iron deficiency (59.5%, 95% CI [48.7, 69.5]) compared to women without iron deficiency (15.2%, 95% CI [12.2, 18.3]; aPR 3.9, 95% CI [2.9, 5.1]). The three nutritional deficiencies examined contributed to 34.6% (95% CI [22.1, 47.1]) of the anemia cases. If all these nutritional deficiencies could be eliminated, then an estimated 5 953 (95% CI [3 807, 8 114]) anemia cases could be prevented. Conclusions: This study suggests that among women of child-bearing age in Belize, anemia cases might be reduced by a third if three modifiable nutritional risk factors (iron, RBCF, and vitamin B12 deficiencies) could be eliminated. Fortification is one potential strategy to improve nutritional status and reduce the burden of anemia in this population.

Narrowing the Survival Gap: Trends in Survival of Individuals with Down Syndrome with and without Congenital Heart Defects Born 1979 to 2018.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the hypothesis that childhood survival for individuals with Down syndrome (DS) and congenital heart defects (CHDs) has improved in recent years, approaching the survival of those with DS without CHDs. STUDY DESIGN: Individuals with DS born from 1979 to 2018 were identified through the Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program, a population-based birth defects surveillance system administered by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Survival analysis was performed to evaluate predictors of mortality for those with DS. RESULTS: The cohort included 1671 individuals with DS; 764 had associated CHDs. The 5-year survival in those with DS with CHD improved steadily among individuals born in the 1980s through the 2010s (from 85% to 93%; P = .01), but remained stable (96% to 95%; P = .97) in those with DS without CHDs. The presence of a CHD was not associated with mortality through 5 years of age for those born 2010 or later (hazard ratio, 2.63; 95% CI, 0.95-8.37). In multivariable analyses, atrioventricular septal defects were associated with early (<1 year) and late (>5 year) mortality, whereas ventricular septal defects were associated with intermediate (1-5 years) mortality and atrial septal defects with late mortality, when adjusting for other risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: The gap in 5-year survival between children with DS with and without CHDs has improved over the last 4 decades. Survival after 5 years remains lower for those with CHDs, although longer follow-up is needed to determine if this difference lessens for those born in the more recent years.

Changes in Spina Bifida Lesion Level after Folic Acid Fortification in the US.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether the severity of cases of spina bifida changed after the institution of mandatory folic acid fortification in the US. STUDY DESIGN: Six active population-based birth defects programs provided data on cases of spina bifida for 1992-1996 (prefortification period) and 1999-2016 (postfortification period). The programs contributed varying years of data. Case information included both a medical record verbatim text description of the spina bifida diagnosis and spina bifida codes (International Classification of Diseases, Clinical Modification, or a modified birth defects surveillance coding system). Comparing the prefortification and postfortification periods, aORs for case severity (upper-level lesions [cervical, thoracic] vs lower-level lesions [lumbar, sacral]) and prevalence ratios (PRs) were estimated. RESULTS: A total of 2593 cases of spina bifida (out of 7 816 062 live births) met the inclusion criteria, including 573 cases from the prefortification period and 2020 cases from the postfortification period. Case severity decreased by 70% (aOR, 0.30; 95% CI, 0.26-0.35) between the fortification periods. The decrease was most pronounced for non-Hispanic White mothers. Overall spina bifida prevalence declined by 23% (PR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.71-0.85), with similar reductions seen across the early, mid, and recent postfortification periods. A statistically significant decrease in upper-level lesions occurred in the postfortification period compared with the prefortification period (PR, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.22-0.34), whereas the prevalence of lower-level lesions remained relatively similar (PR, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.84-1.05). CONCLUSIONS: The severity of spina bifida cases decreased after mandatory folic acid fortification in the US. Further examination is warranted to better understand the potential effect of folic acid on spina bifida severity.

Role of health insurance on the survival of infants with congenital heart defects.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the association between health insurance and survival of infants with congenital heart defects (CHDs), and whether medical insurance type contributed to racial/ethnic disparities in survival. METHODS: We conducted a population-based, retrospective study on a cohort of Florida resident infants born with CHDs between 1998 and 2007. We estimated neonatal, post-neonatal, and infant survival probabilities and adjusted hazard ratios (AHRs) for individual characteristics. RESULTS: Uninsured infants with critical CHDs had 3 times the mortality risk (AHR = 3.0; 95% confidence interval = 1.3, 6.9) than that in privately insured infants. Publicly insured infants had a 30% reduced mortality risk than that of privately insured infants during the neonatal period, but had a 30% increased risk in the post-neonatal period. Adjusting for insurance type reduced the Black-White disparity in mortality risk by 50%. CONCLUSIONS: Racial/ethnic disparities in survival were attenuated significantly, but not eliminated, by adjusting for payer status.

Neural tube defects in Latin America and the impact of fortification: a literature review.

OBJECTIVE: Data on the prevalence of birth defects and neural tube defects (NTD) in Latin America are limited. The present review summarizes NTD prevalence and time trends in Latin American countries and compares pre- and post-fortification periods to assess the impact of folic acid fortification in these countries. DESIGN: We carried out a literature review of studies and institutional reports published between 1990 and 2010 that contained information on NTD prevalence in Latin America. RESULTS: NTD prevalence in Latin American countries varied from 0·2 to 9·6 per 1000 live births and was influenced by methods of ascertainment. Time trends from Bogota, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Guatemala City, Mexico and Puerto Rico showed average annual declines of 2·5 % to 21·8 %. Pre- and post-fortification comparisons were available for Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico and Mexico. The aggregate percentage decline in NTD prevalence ranged from 33 % to 59 %. CONCLUSIONS: The present publication is the first to review data on time trends and the impact of folic acid fortification on NTD prevalence in Latin America. Reported NTD prevalence varied markedly by geographic region and in some areas of Latin America was among the lowest in the world, while in other areas it was among the highest. For countries with available information, time trends showed significant declines in NTD prevalence and these declines were greater in countries where folic acid fortification of staples reached the majority of the population at risk, such as Chile and Costa Rica.

Associations between maternal fever and influenza and congenital heart defects.

OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between maternal reports of prenatal fever or influenza and congenital heart defects (CHDs), and to evaluate whether those associations varied with antipyretic use. STUDY DESIGN: We analyzed case infants with CHD (n = 2361) and control infants without CHD (n = 3435) from the Baltimore-Washington Infant Study (1981-1989). Participating mothers were asked whether they experienced a "fever of 101°F or higher," had "influenza (flu)," or used an antipyretic agent (ie, acetaminophen, salicylate, or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug) during the period extending from 3 months before pregnancy through the end of the third month of pregnancy. We used logistic regression to compute ORs and 95% CIs while controlling for potential confounders. RESULTS: There were significant associations between fever and influenza and specific CHDs, namely right-sided obstructive defects (fever: OR, 2.04; 95% CI, 1.27 to 3.27; influenza: OR, 1.75; 95% CI, 1.16 to 2.62) and atrioventricular septal defects in infants with Down syndrome (fever: OR, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.10 to 3.38; influenza: OR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.04 to 2.63). Maternal antipyretic use in the setting of fever or influenza tended to decrease these associations. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal maternal fever or influenza may be associated with right-sided obstructive lesions in all infants and with atrioventricular septal defects in infants with Down syndrome. The use of antipyretics might attenuate such associations.

National population-based estimates for major birth defects, 2010-2014.

BACKGROUND: Using the National Birth Defects Prevention Network (NBDPN) annual data report, U.S. national prevalence estimates for major birth defects are developed based on birth cohort 2010-2014. METHODS: Data from 39 U.S. population-based birth defects surveillance programs (16 active case-finding, 10 passive case-finding with case confirmation, and 13 passive without case confirmation) were used to calculate pooled prevalence estimates for major defects by case-finding approach. Fourteen active case-finding programs including at least live birth and stillbirth pregnancy outcomes monitoring approximately one million births annually were used to develop national prevalence estimates, adjusted for maternal race/ethnicity (for all conditions examined) and maternal age (trisomies and gastroschisis). These calculations used a similar methodology to the previous estimates to examine changes over time. RESULTS: The adjusted national birth prevalence estimates per 10,000 live births ranged from 0.62 for interrupted aortic arch to 16.87 for clubfoot, and 19.93 for the 12 critical congenital heart defects combined. While the birth prevalence of most birth defects studied remained relatively stable over 15 years, an increasing prevalence was observed for gastroschisis and Down syndrome. Additionally, the prevalence for atrioventricular septal defect, tetralogy of Fallot, omphalocele, and trisomy 18 increased in this period compared to the previous periods. Active case-finding programs generally had higher prevalence rates for most defects examined, most notably for anencephaly, anophthalmia/microphthalmia, trisomy 13, and trisomy 18. CONCLUSION: National estimates of birth defects prevalence provide data for monitoring trends and understanding the impact of these conditions. Increasing prevalence rates observed for selected conditions warrant further examination.

National and regional population attributable fractions for anemia risk factors (iron, folate, and vitamin B12) in Belize: potential impact of fortification / Fracciones atribuibles poblacionales nacionales y regionales de factores de riesgo de anemia (hierro, folato y vitamina B12) en Belice: posible impacto del enriquecimiento de los alimentos con suplementos / Frações atribuíveis populacionais nacionais e regionais de fatores de risco para anemia (ferro, ácido fólico e vitamina B12) em Belize: potencial impacto da fortificação

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To estimate the national and regional population attributable fraction (PAF) and potential number of preventable anemia cases for three nutritional risk factors (iron, red blood cell folate [RBCF], and vitamin B12 deficiencies) among women of childbearing age in Belize. Methods. A national probability-based household and micronutrient survey capturing sociodemographic and health information was conducted among 937 nonpregnant Belizean women aged 15–49 years. Blood samples were collected to determine hemoglobin, ferritin, alpha-1-glycoprotein (AGP), RBCF, and vitamin B12 status. All analyses used sample weights and design variables to reflect a complex sample survey. Logistic regression was used to determine adjusted prevalence risk (aPR) ratios, which were then used to estimate national and regional PAF for anemia. Results. The overall prevalence of anemia (hemoglobin <12 g/dL) was 21.2% (95% CI [18.7, 25.3]). The prevalence of anemia was significantly greater among women with iron deficiency (59.5%, 95% CI [48.7, 69.5]) compared to women without iron deficiency (15.2%, 95% CI [12.2, 18.3]; aPR 3.9, 95% CI [2.9, 5.1]). The three nutritional deficiencies examined contributed to 34.6% (95% CI [22.1, 47.1]) of the anemia cases. If all these nutritional deficiencies could be eliminated, then an estimated 5 953 (95% CI [3 807, 8 114]) anemia cases could be prevented. Conclusions. This study suggests that among women of child-bearing age in Belize, anemia cases might be reduced by a third if three modifiable nutritional risk factors (iron, RBCF, and vitamin B12 deficiencies) could be eliminated. Fortification is one potential strategy to improve nutritional status and reduce the burden of anemia in this population.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Calcular la fracción atribuible poblacional a nivel nacional y regional y el número de casos de anemia que podrían prevenirse para tres factores de riesgo nutricional (deficiencia de hierro, folato eritrocitario y vitamina B12) en las mujeres en edad reproductiva en Belice. Metodología. Se llevó a cabo una encuesta probabilística nacional sobre características de los hogares y micronutrientes en la que se recopiló información sociodemográfica y de salud de 937 mujeres beliceñas no embarazadas de entre 15 y 49 años. Se extrajeron muestras de sangre para determinar los niveles de hemoglobina, ferritina, alfa–1–glucoproteína, folato eritrocitario y vitamina B12. En todos los análisis se emplearon ponderaciones muestrales y variables calculadas para tener en cuenta que se trataba de una encuesta con una muestra compleja. Se estimaron mediante regresión logística las razones de riesgos de prevalencia ajustados, que posteriormente se utilizaron para calcular la fracción atribuible poblacional con respecto a la anemia a nivel nacional y regional. Resultados. La prevalencia global de la anemia (hemoglobina <12 g/dl) fue del 21,2% (IC del 95%: 18,7– 25,3). La prevalencia de la anemia fue significativamente mayor en las mujeres con ferropenia (59,5%, IC del 95%: 48,7–69,5) que en las que no tenían ferropenia (15,2%, IC del 95%: 12,2, 18,3); razón de riesgos de prevalencia ajustados = 3.9, IC del 95%; 2,9–5,1). Las tres deficiencias nutricionales examinadas explicaban al 34,6% (IC del 95%: 22,1–47,1) de los casos de anemia. Se estima que si pudieran eliminarse todas estas deficiencias nutricionales, se prevendrían unos 5953 (IC del 95%: 3807–8114) casos de anemia. Conclusiones. Los resultados de este estudio sugieren que los casos de anemia en las mujeres en edad reproductiva de Belice podrían reducirse en un tercio si se pudieran eliminar tres factores de riesgo nutricionales modificables (deficiencias de hierro, folato eritrocitario y vitamina B12). Una posible estrategia para mejorar el estado nutricional y reducir la carga de la anemia en este grupo poblacional es en el enriquecimiento de los alimentos con suplementos.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Estimar a fração atribuível populacional (FAP) nacional e regional e o potencial número de casos preveníveis de anemia para três fatores de risco nutricionais (deficiência de ferro, ácido fólico eritrocitário e vitamina B12) entre mulheres em idade fértil em Belize. Métodos. Realizou-se um inquérito probabilístico domiciliar nacional sobre micronutrientes, que coletou informações sociodemográficas e de saúde de 937 mulheres belizenhas não grávidas com idade entre 15 e 49 anos. Coletaram-se amostras de sangue para dosagem de hemoglobina, ferritina, alfa-1-glicoproteína (AGP), ácido fólico eritrocitário e vitamina B12. Todas as análises usaram variáveis de delineamento e ponderações amostrais para refletir um inquérito amostral complexo. Aplicou-se regressão logística para determinar razões ajustadas de risco de prevalência (RPa), que foram usadas para estimar a FAP nacional e regional para anemia. Resultados. A prevalência geral de anemia (hemoglobina <12 g/dL) foi de 21,2% (IC 95% [18,7–25,3]). A prevalência de anemia foi significativamente maior em mulheres com deficiência de ferro (59,5%, IC 95% [48,7–69,5]) que em mulheres sem deficiência de ferro (15,2%, IC 95% [12,2–18,3]); RPa 3,9, IC 95% [2,9– 5,1]). As três deficiências nutricionais analisadas contribuíram para 34,6% (IC 95% [22,1–47,1]) dos casos de anemia. Caso se eliminassem todas essas deficiências nutricionais, seria possível evitar cerca de 5.953 (IC 95% [3.807–8.114]) casos de anemia. Conclusões. Este estudo sugere que, nas mulheres belizenhas em idade fértil, os casos de anemia poderiam ser reduzidos em um terço caso fosse possível eliminar três fatores de risco nutricionais modificáveis (deficiência de ferro, ácido fólico eritrocitário e vitamina B12). A fortificação é uma possível estratégia para melhorar o estado nutricional e reduzir a carga de anemia nessa população.

Use of spline regression in an analysis of maternal prepregnancy body mass index and adverse birth outcomes: does it tell us more than we already know?

PURPOSE: Categorical analyses of prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) have shown that maternal overweight and obesity are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. It is unclear whether further insight into these associations can be gained from spline regression. METHODS: We used spline regression to examine the relations between prepregnancy BMI and five adverse pregnancy outcomes in the Baltimore-Washington Infant Study, a case-control study of congenital cardiac defects. Analyses included 3,226 singleton live-born control infants delivered 1981 through 1989. We modeled BMI using (a) traditional categories of underweight, average weight, overweight, and obese and (b) restricted quadratic splines. RESULTS: We confirmed that overweight status and obesity were associated with increased risk of macrosomia and large for gestational age. For these outcomes, splines provided detail about the associations at the ends of the BMI distribution and within the average BMI category. Spline analyses also showed that underweight status was associated with increased risk of preterm delivery. CONCLUSIONS: Analyses of traditional categories of BMI provide good understanding of the associations with several adverse birth outcomes. For three outcomes, modeling with splines provided additional insight regarding dose-response relations within categories. Results suggest the need for further analyses of average BMI and adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Does a multifaceted environmental intervention alter the impact of asthma on inner-city children?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of a multifaceted environmental and educational intervention on the indoor environment and health in 5-12-year-old children with asthma living in urban environments. DESIGN: Changes in indoor allergen levels and asthma severity measurements were compared between children who were randomized to intervention and delayed intervention groups in a 14-month prospective field trial. Intervention group households received dust mite covers, a professional house cleaning, and had roach bait and trays placed in their houses. RESULTS: Of 981 eligible children, 410 (42%) were enrolled; 161 (40%) completed baseline activities and were randomized: 84 to intervention and 77 to delayed intervention groups. At the study's end, dust mite levels were 163% higher than at baseline for the delayed intervention group. Overall asthma severity scores did not change. However, the median functional severity score (FSS) component of the severity score improved more in the intervention group (33% vs. 20%) than in the delayed intervention group. At the study's end, the median FSSs for the intervention group improved 25% compared with the delayed intervention group, (p<0.01). Differences between groups for medication use, emergency department (ED) visits or hospitalization were not significant. CONCLUSIONS: Despite low retention, the intervention resulted in decreased dust mite allergen levels and increased FSSs among the intervention group. The interventions probably contributed to the improvements, especially among the more severely affected children. This study highlights the complexities of designing and assessing the outcomes from a multifaceted asthma intervention.

Cardiorespiratory hospitalizations associated with smoke exposure during the 1997, Southeast Asian forest fires.

We investigated the cardiorespiratory health effects of smoke exposure from the 1997 Southeast Asian Forest Fires among persons who were hospitalized in the region of Kuching, Malaysia. We selected admissions to seven hospitals in the Kuching region from a database of all hospital admissions in the state of Sarawak during January 1, 1995 and December 31, 1998. For several cardiorespiratory disease classifications we used Holt-Winters time-series analyses to determine whether the total number of monthly hospitalizations during the forest fire period (August 1 to October 31, 1997), or post-fire period (November 1, 1997 to December 31, 1997) exceeded forecasted estimates established from a historical baseline period of January 1, 1995 to July 31, 1997. We also identified age-specific cohorts of persons whose members were admitted for specific cardiorespiratory problems during January 1 to July 31 of each year (1995--1997). We compared Kaplan-Meier survival curves of time to first readmission for the 1997 cohorts (exposed to the forest fire smoke) with the survival curves for the 1995 and 1996 cohorts (not exposed, pre-fire cohorts). The time-series analyses indicated that statistically significant fire-related increases were observed in respiratory hospitalizations, specifically those for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. The survival analyses indicated that persons over age 65 years with previous hospital admissions for any cause (chi2(1df) = 5.98, p = 0.015), any cardiorespiratory disease (chi2(1df) = 5.3, p = 0.02), any respiratory disease (chi2(1df) = 7.8, p = 0.005), or COPD (chi2(1df) = 3.9, p = 0.047), were significantly more likely to be rehospitalized during the follow-up period in 1997 than during the follow-up periods in the pre-fire years of 1995 or 1996. The survival functions of the exposed cohorts resumed similar trajectories to unexposed cohorts during the post-fire period of November 1, 1997 to December 31, 1998. Communities exposed to forest fire smoke during the Southeast Asian forest fires of 1997 experienced short-term increases in cardiorespiratory hospitalizations. When an air quality emergency is anticipated, persons over age 65 with histories of respiratory hospitalizations should be preidentified from existing hospitalization records and given priority access to interventions.

Racial/ethnic variations in the prevalence of selected major birth defects, metropolitan Atlanta, 1994-2005.

OBJECTIVES: Birth defects are the leading cause of infant mortality and are responsible for substantial child and adult morbidity. Documenting the variation in prevalence of birth defects among racial/ethnic subpopulations is critical for assessing possible variations in diagnosis, case ascertainment, or risk factors among such groups. METHODS: We used data from the Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program, a population-based birth defects registry with active case ascertainment. We estimated the racial/ethnic variation in prevalence of 46 selected major birth defects among live births, stillbirths, and pregnancy terminations at >20 weeks gestation among mothers residing in the five central counties of metropolitan Atlanta between 1994 and 2005, adjusting for infant sex, maternal age, gravidity, and socioeconomic status (SES). We also explored SES as a potential effect measure modifier. RESULTS: Compared with births to non-Hispanic white women, births to non-Hispanic black women had a significantly higher prevalence of five birth defects and a significantly lower prevalence of 10 birth defects, while births to Hispanic women had a significantly higher prevalence of four birth defects and a significantly lower prevalence of six birth defects. The racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence of some defects varied by SES, but no clear pattern emerged. CONCLUSIONS: Racial/ethnic disparities were suggested in 57% of included birth defects. Disparities in the prevalence of birth defects may result from different underlying genetic susceptibilities; exposure to risk factors; or variability in case diagnosis, ascertainment, or reporting among the subpopulations examined. Policies that improve early diagnosis of birth defects could reduce associated morbidity and mortality.

Maternal smoking and congenital heart defects in the Baltimore-Washington Infant Study.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated associations between maternal cigarette smoking during the first trimester and the risk of congenital heart defects (CHDs) among the infants. METHODS: The Baltimore-Washington Infant Study was the first population-based case-control study of CHDs conducted in the United States. Case and control infants were enrolled during the period 1981-1989. We excluded mothers with overt pregestational diabetes and case mothers whose infants had noncardiac anomalies (with the exception of atrioventricular septal defects with Down syndrome) from the analysis, which resulted in 2525 case and 3435 control infants. Self-reported first-trimester maternal cigarette consumption was ascertained via an in-person interview after delivery. Associations for 26 different groups of CHDs with maternal cigarette consumption were estimated by using logistic regression models. Odds ratios (ORs) corresponded to a 20-cigarette-per-day increase in consumption. RESULTS: We observed statistically significant positive associations between self-reported first-trimester maternal cigarette consumption and the risk of secundum-type atrial septal defects (OR: 1.36 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.04-1.78]), right ventricular outflow tract defects (OR: 1.32 [95% CI: 1.06-1.65]), pulmonary valve stenosis (OR: 1.35 [95% CI: 1.05-1.74]), truncus arteriosus (OR: 1.90 [95% CI: 1.04-3.45]), and levo-transposition of the great arteries (OR: 1.79 [95% CI: 1.04-3.10]). A suggestive association was observed for atrioventricular septal defects among infants without Down syndrome (OR: 1.50 [95% CI: 0.99-2.29]). CONCLUSIONS: These findings add to the existing body of evidence that implicates first-trimester maternal cigarette smoking as a modest risk factor for select CHD phenotypes.

Survey of knowledge, attitudes, and practice management patterns of Atlanta-area obstetricians regarding stillbirth.

OBJECTIVE: Existing surveillance data on fetal death certificates are suboptimal for conducting reliable epidemiologic studies on stillbirth. The objective of this survey was to better understand the factors potentially affecting the quality of data collected on stillbirths among a defined population. METHODS: A survey was mailed to all physicians (n = 661) listed in the July 2007 version of the American Medical Association master file with a primary specialty of obstetrics/gynecology and a mailing address within five counties in metropolitan Atlanta. RESULTS: A total of 487 physicians met eligibility criteria: 279 returned the survey, 179 did not return the survey, and 29 were returned as unable to locate. Two respondents returned incomplete surveys, leaving 277 participants for the final analysis. Respondents reported seeing an average of six stillbirths per year. A cause of death was not identified in two thirds of cases. Almost half (46.8%) of participants responded that 20 weeks was the minimum gestational age defining stillbirth, whereas 33.1% responded that it was 24 weeks. A majority (92.6%) responded that a standardized definition for stillbirth should be adopted. More than 80% agreed that a comprehensive evaluation was important to identify a cause of death, and 91.9% agreed that the use of a standardized protocol for post-mortem stillbirth evaluation would be helpful. A majority also agreed that ongoing surveillance of stillbirths and a national research agenda on causes of stillbirth are important. CONCLUSION: Comprehensive educational and awareness efforts for obstetricians and other related health care personnel are needed to further improve on the data collected for surveillance purposes on stillbirth.

Are encephaloceles neural tube defects?

OBJECTIVE: Encephalocele is classified as a neural tube defect, but questions have been raised regarding whether its epidemiological characteristics are similar to those of other neural tube defects. DESIGN: We compared characteristics of temporal trends in, and the impact of folic acid grain fortification on, the prevalence of encephalocele, spina bifida, and anencephaly using data from the Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program, a population-based birth defects surveillance system. Prevalences of encephalocele, spina bifida, and anencephaly were compared by maternal age, gender, race, birth weight, ascertainment period (1968-1981, 1982-1993, or 1994-2002), and fortification period (1994-1996 [prefortification] and 1998-2002 [postfortification]) using prevalence ratios with 95% confidence intervals. Temporal trends were assessed using Poisson and negative binomial regression models. RESULTS: Prevalence rates of encephalocele (n = 167), spina bifida (n = 650), and anencephaly (n = 431) were 1.4, 5.5, and 3.7 per 10 000 live births, respectively. Encephalocele was similar to anencephaly in showing an increased prevalence among girls and multiple gestation pregnancies and to spina bifida and anencephaly in an annual prevalence decrease between 1968 and 2002 (-1.2% for encephalocele, -4.2% for spina bifida, and -3.6% for anencephaly). With fortification, prevalence decreased for spina bifida but not significantly for encephalocele or anencephaly. CONCLUSIONS: Encephalocele shows more similarities to spina bifida or anencephaly than it shows differences with respect to characteristics, temporal trend, and impact of fortification. Additional studies should be done to explore the etiologic heterogeneity of encephalocele using better markers of folate status and a wider range of risk factors.

Epidemiology of gastroschisis in metropolitan Atlanta, 1968 through 2000.

BACKGROUND: An increase in the rate of gastroschisis has been documented by birth defects surveillance systems in the United States and in other countries. This study sought to evaluate historical trends in the rate of gastroschisis in Atlanta, Georgia, and to describe the epidemiology of gastroschisis over 33 years. METHODS: Gastroschisis cases were identified through the Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program (MACDP) from 1968 through 2000. Poisson regression techniques were used to evaluate trends over time. Data on covariates were compared for three maternal age groups (< or =19, 20-24, and > or =25 years). RESULTS: From 1968 through 1975, the rate of gastroschisis was stable at 0.8 per 10,000 births. After 1975, the rate of gastroschisis was 2.3 per 10,000 births with no significant increase observed from 1976 through 2000. The rate of gastroschisis was six times higher among teenage mothers compared with mothers > or =25 years of age. Affected infants born to teenage mothers were less likely to be born to Black mothers compared to White mothers (rate ratio [RR], 0.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.2-0.6). This was also true for mothers 20-24 years of age (RR, 0.5; 95% CI, 0.3-0.8) but not for mothers 25 years of age or older (RR, 1.6; 95% CI, 0.9-2.7). CONCLUSIONS: An increase in the rate of gastroschisis was observed in the mid-1970s, but no temporal trend has been observed since that time. In light of recent reports of an increasing prevalence of gastroschisis in the United States, continued monitoring of this birth defect is warranted.

National vehicle emissions policies and practices and declining US carbon monoxide-related mortality.

CONTEXT: Carbon monoxide (CO) has been reported to contribute to more than 2000 poisoning deaths per year in the United States. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the influence of national vehicle emissions policies and practices on CO-related mortality and to describe 31 years (1968-1998) of CO-related deaths in the United States. DESIGN AND SETTING: Longitudinal trend analysis using computerized death data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Census Bureau population data, and annual CO emissions estimates for light-duty vehicles provided by the US Environmental Protection Agency. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: All deaths in the US for which non-fire-related CO poisoning was an underlying or contributing condition, classified by intent and mechanism of death. Negative binomial regression was used to incorporate every year of data into estimated percentage changes in CO emissions and mortality rates over time. RESULTS: During 1968-1998, CO-related mortality rates in the United States declined from 20.2 deaths to 8.8 deaths per 1 million person-years (an estimated decline of 57.8%; 95% confidence interval [CI], -62.4% to -52.6%). Following the introduction of the catalytic converter to automobiles in 1975, CO emissions from automobiles decreased by an estimated 76.3% of 1975 levels (95% CI, -82.0% to -70.4%) and unintentional motor vehicle-related CO death rates declined from 4.0 to 0.9 deaths per 1 million person-years (an estimated decline of 81.3%; 95% CI, -84.8% to -77.0%). Rates of motor vehicle-related CO suicides declined from 10.0 to 4.9 deaths per 1 million person-years (an estimated decline of 43.3%; 95% CI, -57.5% to -24.3%). During 1975-1996, an annual decrease of 10 g/mile of estimated CO emissions from automobiles was associated with a 21.3% decrease (95% CI, -24.2% to -18.4%) in the annual unintentional motor vehicle-related CO death rate and a 5.9% decrease (95%CI, -10.0% to -1.8%) in the annual rate of motor vehicle-related CO suicides. CONCLUSIONS: If rates of unintentional CO-related deaths had remained at pre-1975 levels, an estimated additional 11 700 motor vehicle-related CO poisoning deaths might have occurred by 1998. This decline in death rates appears to be a public health benefit associated with the enforcement of standards set by the 1970 Clean Air Act.