Enrichment of Zα domains at cytoplasmic stress granules is due to their innate ability to bind to nucleic acids.

Zα domains recognize the left-handed helical Z conformation of double-stranded nucleic acids. They are found in proteins involved in the nucleic acid sensory pathway of the vertebrate innate immune system and host evasion by viral pathogens. Previously, it has been demonstrated that ADAR1 (encoded by ADAR in humans) and DAI (also known as ZBP1) localize to cytoplasmic stress granules (SGs), and this localization is mediated by their Zα domains. To investigate the mechanism, we determined the interactions and localization pattern for the N-terminal region of human DAI (ZαßDAI), which harbours two Zα domains, and for a ZαßDAI mutant deficient in nucleic acid binding. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated the ability of ZαßDAI to bind to hyperedited nucleic acids, which are enriched in SGs. Furthermore, using immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation coupled with mass spectrometry, we identified several interacting partners of the ZαßDAI-RNA complex in vivo under conditions of arsenite-induced stress. These interactions are lost upon loss of nucleic acid-binding ability or upon RNase treatment. Thus, we posit that the mechanism for the translocation of Zα domain-containing proteins to SGs is mainly mediated by the nucleic acid-binding ability of their Zα domains. This article has an associated First Person interview with Bharath Srinivasan, joint first author of the paper.

Thermodynamic analysis of Zα domain-nucleic acid interactions.

DNA/RNA molecules adopting the left-handed conformation (Z-form) have been attributed with immunogenic properties. However, their biological role and importance have been a topic of debate for many years. The discovery of Z-DNA/RNA binding domains (Zα domains) in varied proteins that are involved in the innate immune response, such as the interferon inducible form of the RNA editing enzyme ADAR1 (p150), Z-DNA binding protein 1 (ZBP1), the fish kinase PKZ and the poxvirus inhibitor of interferon response E3L, indicates important roles of Z-DNA/RNA in immunity and self/non-self-discrimination. Such Zα domain-containing proteins recognize left-handed Z-DNA/RNA in a conformation-specific manner. Recent studies have implicated these domains in virus recognition. Given these important emerging roles for the Zα domains, it is pivotal to understand the mechanism of recognition of the Z-DNA/Z-RNA by these domains. To this end, we assessed the binding thermodynamics of Zα domain from ORF112 and ADAR1 on T(CG)3 and T(CG)6 oligonucleotides which have high propensity to adopt the Z-conformation. Our study highlights important differences in the mode of oligonucleotide binding by the two Zα domains originating from different proteins. Site-directed mutagenesis was employed together with isothermal titration calorimetry to tease apart finer details of the binding thermodynamics. Our work advances the understanding on binding thermodynamics of Zα domains to their cognate nucleic acid substrates and paves the ground for future efforts to gain a complete appreciation of this process.

Intron retention in the 5'UTR of the novel ZIF2 transporter enhances translation to promote zinc tolerance in arabidopsis.

Root vacuolar sequestration is one of the best-conserved plant strategies to cope with heavy metal toxicity. Here we report that zinc (Zn) tolerance in Arabidopsis requires the action of a novel Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) transporter. We show that ZIF2 (Zinc-Induced Facilitator 2) localises primarily at the tonoplast of root cortical cells and is a functional transporter able to mediate Zn efflux when heterologously expressed in yeast. By affecting plant tissue partitioning of the metal ion, loss of ZIF2 function exacerbates plant sensitivity to excess Zn, while its overexpression enhances Zn tolerance. The ZIF2 gene is Zn-induced and an intron retention event in its 5'UTR generates two splice variants (ZIF2.1 and ZIF2.2) encoding the same protein. Importantly, high Zn favours production of the longer ZIF2.2 transcript, which compared to ZIF2.1 confers greater Zn tolerance to transgenic plants by promoting higher root Zn immobilization. We show that the retained intron in the ZIF2 5'UTR enhances translation in a Zn-responsive manner, markedly promoting ZIF2 protein expression under excess Zn. Moreover, Zn regulation of translation driven by the ZIF2.2 5'UTR depends largely on a predicted stable stem loop immediately upstream of the start codon that is lost in the ZIF2.1 5'UTR. Collectively, our findings indicate that alternative splicing controls the levels of a Zn-responsive mRNA variant of the ZIF2 transporter to enhance plant tolerance to the metal ion.

The Structure of the Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 ORF112-Zα·Z-DNA Complex Reveals a Mechanism of Nucleic Acids Recognition Conserved with E3L, a Poxvirus Inhibitor of Interferon Response.

In vertebrate species, the innate immune system down-regulates protein translation in response to viral infection through the action of the double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-activated protein kinase (PKR). In some teleost species another protein kinase, Z-DNA-dependent protein kinase (PKZ), plays a similar role but instead of dsRNA binding domains, PKZ has Zα domains. These domains recognize the left-handed conformer of dsDNA and dsRNA known as Z-DNA/Z-RNA. Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 infects common and koi carp, which have PKZ, and encodes the ORF112 protein that itself bears a Zα domain, a putative competitive inhibitor of PKZ. Here we present the crystal structure of ORF112-Zα in complex with an 18-bp CpG DNA repeat, at 1.5 Å. We demonstrate that the bound DNA is in the left-handed conformation and identify key interactions for the specificity of ORF112. Localization of ORF112 protein in stress granules induced in Cyprinid herpesvirus 3-infected fish cells suggests a functional behavior similar to that of Zα domains of the interferon-regulated, nucleic acid surveillance proteins ADAR1 and DAI.

Structural basis for Z-DNA binding and stabilization by the zebrafish Z-DNA dependent protein kinase PKZ.

The RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR plays a central role in the antiviral defense of vertebrates by shutting down protein translation upon detection of viral dsRNA in the cytoplasm. In some teleost fish, PKZ, a homolog of PKR, performs the same function, but surprisingly, instead of dsRNA binding domains, it harbors two Z-DNA/Z-RNA-binding domains belonging to the Zalpha domain family. Zalpha domains have also been found in other proteins, which have key roles in the regulation of interferon responses such as ADAR1 and DNA-dependent activator of IFN-regulatory factors (DAI) and in viral proteins involved in immune response evasion such as the poxviral E3L and the Cyprinid Herpesvirus 3 ORF112. The underlying mechanism of nucleic acids binding and stabilization by Zalpha domains is still unclear. Here, we present two crystal structures of the zebrafish PKZ Zalpha domain (DrZalpha(PKZ)) in alternatively organized complexes with a (CG)6 DNA oligonucleotide at 2 and 1.8 Å resolution. These structures reveal novel aspects of the Zalpha interaction with DNA, and they give insights on the arrangement of multiple Zalpha domains on DNA helices longer than the minimal binding site.

Zalpha-domains: at the intersection between RNA editing and innate immunity.

The involvement of A to I RNA editing in antiviral responses was first indicated by the observation of genomic hyper-mutation for several RNA viruses in the course of persistent infections. However, in only a few cases an antiviral role was ever demonstrated and surprisingly, it turns out that ADARs - the RNA editing enzymes - may have a prominent pro-viral role through the modulation/down-regulation of the interferon response. A key role in this regulatory function of RNA editing is played by ADAR1, an interferon inducible RNA editing enzyme. A distinguishing feature of ADAR1, when compared with other ADARs, is the presence of a Z-DNA binding domain, Zalpha. Since the initial discovery of the specific and high affinity binding of Zalpha to CpG repeats in a left-handed helical conformation, other proteins, all related to the interferon response pathway, were shown to have similar domains throughout the vertebrate lineage. What is the biological function of this domain family remains unclear but a significant body of work provides pieces of a puzzle that points to an important role of Zalpha domains in the recognition of foreign nucleic acids in the cytoplasm by the innate immune system. Here we will provide an overview of our knowledge on ADAR1 function in interferon response with emphasis on Zalpha domains.

Crystal structure of a poxvirus-like zalpha domain from cyprinid herpesvirus 3.

Zalpha domains are a subfamily of the winged helix-turn-helix domains sharing the unique ability to recognize CpG repeats in the left-handed Z-DNA conformation. In vertebrates, domains of this family are found exclusively in proteins that detect foreign nucleic acids and activate components of the antiviral interferon response. Moreover, poxviruses encode the Zalpha domain-containing protein E3L, a well-studied and potent inhibitor of interferon response. Here we describe a herpesvirus Zalpha-domain-containing protein (ORF112) from cyprinid herpesvirus 3. We demonstrate that ORF112 also binds CpG repeats in the left-handed conformation, and moreover, its structure at 1.75 Å reveals the Zalpha fold found in ADAR1, DAI, PKZ, and E3L. Unlike other Zalpha domains, however, ORF112 forms a dimer through a unique domain-swapping mechanism. Thus, ORF112 may be considered a new member of the Z-domain family having DNA binding properties similar to those of the poxvirus E3L inhibitor of interferon response.

Crystal structure of a junction between two Z-DNA helices.

The double helix of DNA, when composed of dinucleotide purine-pyrimidine repeats, can adopt a left-handed helical structure called Z-DNA. For reasons not entirely understood, such dinucleotide repeats in genomic sequences have been associated with genomic instability leading to cancer. Adoption of the left-handed conformation results in the formation of conformational junctions: A B-to-Z junction is formed at the boundaries of the helix, whereas a Z-to-Z junction is commonly formed in sequences where the dinucleotide repeat is interrupted by single base insertions or deletions that bring neighboring helices out of phase. B-Z junctions are shown to result in exposed nucleotides vulnerable to chemical or enzymatic modification. Here we describe the three-dimensional structure of a Z-Z junction stabilized by Zalpha, the Z-DNA binding domain of the RNA editing enzyme ADAR1. We show that the junction structure consists of a single base pair and leads to partial or full disruption of the helical stacking. The junction region allows intercalating agents to insert themselves into the left-handed helix, which is otherwise resistant to intercalation. However, unlike a B-Z junction, in this structure the bases are not fully extruded, and the stacking between the two left-handed helices is not continuous.

Alternative splicing and gene duplication in the evolution of the FoxP gene subfamily.

The FoxP gene subfamily of transcription factors is defined by its characteristic 110 amino acid long DNA-binding forkhead domain and plays essential roles in vertebrate biology. Its four members, FoxP1-P4, have been extensively characterized functionally. FoxP1, FoxP2, and FoxP4 are involved in lung, heart, gut, and central nervous system (CNS) development. FoxP3 is necessary and sufficient for the specification of regulatory T cells (Tregs) of the adaptive immune system. In Drosophila melanogaster, in silico predictions identify one unique FoxP subfamily gene member (CG16899) with no described function. We characterized this gene and established that it generates by alternative splicing two isoforms that differ in the forkhead DNA-binding domain. In D. melanogaster, both isoforms are expressed in the embryonic CNS, but in hemocytes, only isoform A is expressed, hinting to a putative modulation through alternative splicing of FoxP1 function in immunity and/or other hemocyte-dependent processes. Furthermore, we show that in vertebrates, this novel alternative splicing pattern is conserved for FoxP1. In mice, this new FoxP1 isoform is expressed in brain, liver, heart, testes, thymus, and macrophages (equivalent in function to hemocytes). This alternative splicing pattern has arisen at the base of the Bilateria, probably through exon tandem duplication. Moreover, our phylogenetic analysis suggests that in vertebrates, FoxP1 is more related to the FoxP gene ancestral form and the other three paralogues, originated through serial duplications, which only retained one of the alternative exons. Also, the newly described isoform differs from the other in amino acids critical for DNA-binding specificity. The integrity of its fold is maintained, but the molecule has lost the direct hydrogen bonding to DNA bases leading to a putatively lower specificity and possibly affinity toward DNA. With the present comparative study, through the integration of experimental and in silico studies of the FoxP gene subfamily across the animal kingdom, we establish a new model for the FoxP gene in invertebrates and for the vertebrate FoxP1 paralogue. Furthermore, we present a scenario for the structural evolution of this gene class and reveal new previously unsuspected levels of regulation for FoxP1 in the vertebrate system.

A left-handed RNA double helix bound by the Z alpha domain of the RNA-editing enzyme ADAR1.

The A form RNA double helix can be transformed to a left-handed helix, called Z-RNA. Currently, little is known about the detailed structural features of Z-RNA or its involvement in cellular processes. The discovery that certain interferon-response proteins have domains that can stabilize Z-RNA as well as Z-DNA opens the way for the study of Z-RNA. Here, we present the 2.25 A crystal structure of the Zalpha domain of the RNA-editing enzyme ADAR1 (double-stranded RNA adenosine deaminase) complexed to a dUr(CG)(3) duplex RNA. The Z-RNA helix is associated with a unique solvent pattern that distinguishes it from the otherwise similar conformation of Z-DNA. Based on the structure, we propose a model suggesting how differences in solvation lead to two types of Z-RNA structures. The interaction of Zalpha with Z-RNA demonstrates how the interferon-induced isoform of ADAR1 could be targeted toward selected dsRNAs containing purine-pyrimidine repeats, possibly of viral origin.

Widespread A-to-I RNA editing of Alu-containing mRNAs in the human transcriptome.

RNA editing by adenosine deamination generates RNA and protein diversity through the posttranscriptional modification of single nucleotides in RNA sequences. Few mammalian A-to-I edited genes have been identified despite evidence that many more should exist. Here we identify intramolecular pairs of Alu elements as a major target for editing in the human transcriptome. An experimental demonstration in 43 genes was extended by a broader computational analysis of more than 100,000 human mRNAs. We find that 1,445 human mRNAs (1.4%) are subject to RNA editing at more than 14,500 sites, and our data further suggest that the vast majority of pre-mRNAs (greater than 85%) are targeted in introns by the editing machinery. The editing levels of Alu-containing mRNAs correlate with distance and homology between inverted repeats and vary in different tissues. Alu-mediated RNA duplexes targeted by RNA editing are formed intramolecularly, whereas editing due to intermolecular base-pairing appears to be negligible. We present evidence that these editing events can lead to the posttranscriptional creation or elimination of splice signals affecting alternatively spliced Alu-derived exons. The analysis suggests that modification of repetitive elements is a predominant activity for RNA editing with significant implications for cellular gene expression.

Protein analysis and gene expression indicate differential vulnerability of Iberian fish species under a climate change scenario.

Current knowledge on the biological responses of freshwater fish under projected scenarios of climate change remains limited. Here, we examine differences in the protein configuration of two endemic Iberian freshwater fish species, Squalius carolitertii and the critically endangered S. torgalensis that inhabit in the Atlantic-type northern and in the Mediterranean-type southwestern regions, respectively. We performed protein structure modeling of fourteen genes linked to protein folding, energy metabolism, circadian rhythms and immune responses. Structural differences in proteins between the two species were found for HSC70, FKBP52, HIF1α and GPB1. For S. torgalensis, besides structural differences, we found higher thermostability for two proteins (HSP90 and GBP1), which can be advantageous in a warmer environment. Additionally, we investigated how these species might respond to projected scenarios of 3° climate change warming, acidification (ΔpH = -0.4), and their combined effects. Significant changes in gene expression were observed in response to all treatments, particularly under the combined warming and acidification. While S. carolitertii presented changes in gene expression for multiple proteins related to folding (hsp90aa1, hsc70, fkbp4 and stip1), only one such gene was altered in S. torgalensis (stip1). However, S. torgalensis showed a greater capacity for energy production under both the acidification and combined scenarios by increasing cs gene expression and maintaining ldha gene expression in muscle. Overall, these findings suggest that S. torgalensis is better prepared to cope with projected climate change. Worryingly, under the simulated scenarios, disturbances to circadian rhythm and immune system genes (cry1aa, per1a and gbp1) raise concerns for the persistence of both species, highlighting the need to consider multi-stressor effects when evaluating climate change impacts upon fish. This work also highlights that assessments of the potential of endangered freshwater species to cope with environmental change are crucial to help decision-makers adopt future conservation strategies.

Conserved Fever Pathways across Vertebrates: A Herpesvirus Expressed Decoy TNF-α Receptor Delays Behavioral Fever in Fish.

Both endotherms and ectotherms (e.g., fish) increase their body temperature to limit pathogen infection. Ectotherms do so by moving to warmer places, hence the term "behavioral fever." We studied the manifestation of behavioral fever in the common carp infected by cyprinid herpesvirus 3, a native carp pathogen. Carp maintained at 24°C died from the infection, whereas those housed in multi-chamber tanks encompassing a 24°C-32°C gradient migrated transiently to the warmest compartment and survived as a consequence. Behavioral fever manifested only at advanced stages of infection. Consistent with this, expression of CyHV-3 ORF12, encoding a soluble decoy receptor for TNF-α, delayed the manifestation of behavioral fever and promoted CyHV-3 replication in the context of a temperature gradient. Injection of anti-TNF-α neutralizing antibodies suppressed behavioral fever, and decreased fish survival in response to infection. This study provides a unique example of how viruses have evolved to alter host behavior to increase fitness.

The crystal structure of the Zbeta domain of the RNA-editing enzyme ADAR1 reveals distinct conserved surfaces among Z-domains.

The Zalpha domains represent a growing subfamily of the winged helix-turn-helix (HTH) domain family whose members share a remarkable ability to bind specifically to Z-DNA and/or Z-RNA. They have been found exclusively in proteins involved in interferon response and, while their importance in determining pox viral pathogenicity has been demonstrated, their actual target and biological role remain obscure. Cellular proteins containing Zalpha domains bear a second homologous domain termed Zbeta, which appears to lack the ability to bind left-handed nucleic acids. Here, we present the crystal structure of the Zbeta domain from the human double-stranded RNA adenosine deaminase ADAR1 at 0.97 A, determined by single isomorphous replacement including anomalous scattering. Zbeta maintains a winged-HTH fold with the addition of a C-terminal helix. Mapping of the Zbeta conservation profile on the Zbeta surface reveals a new conserved surface formed partly by the terminal helix 4, involved in metal binding and dimerization and absent from Zalpha domains. Our results show how two domains similar in fold may have evolved into different functional entities even in the context of the same protein.

Structural and biochemical characterization of a new Mg(2+) binding site near Tyr94 in the restriction endonuclease PvuII.

We have determined the crystal structure of the PvuII endonuclease in the presence of Mg(2+). According to the structural data, divalent metal ion binding in the PvuII subunits is highly asymmetric. The PvuII-Mg(2+) complex has two distinct metal ion binding sites, one in each monomer. One site is formed by the catalytic residues Asp58 and Glu68, and has extensive similarities to a catalytically important site found in all structurally examined restriction endonucleases. The other binding site is located in the other monomer, in the immediate vicinity of the hydroxyl group of Tyr94; it has no analogy to metal ion binding sites found so far in restriction endonucleases. To assign the number of metal ions involved and to better understand the role of Mg(2+) binding to Tyr94 for the function of PvuII, we have exchanged Tyr94 by Phe and characterized the metal ion dependence of DNA cleavage of wild-type PvuII and the Y94F variant. Wild-type PvuII cleaves both strands of the DNA in a concerted reaction. Mg(2+) binding, as measured by the Mg(2+) dependence of DNA cleavage, occurs with a Hill coefficient of 4, meaning that at least two metal ions are bound to each subunit in a cooperative fashion upon formation of the active complex. Quenched-flow experiments show that DNA cleavage occurs about tenfold faster if Mg(2+) is pre-incubated with enzyme or DNA than if preformed enzyme-DNA complexes are mixed with Mg(2+). These results show that Mg(2+) cannot easily enter the active center of the preformed enzyme-DNA complex, but that for fast cleavage the metal ions must already be bound to the apoenzyme and carried with the enzyme into the enzyme-DNA complex. The Y94F variant, in contrast to wild-type PvuII, does not cleave DNA in a concerted manner and metal ion binding occurs with a Hill coefficient of 1. These results indicate that removal of the Mg(2+) binding site at Tyr94 completely disrupts the cooperativity in DNA cleavage. Moreover, in quenched-flow experiments Y94F cleaves DNA about ten times more slowly than wild-type PvuII, regardless of the order of mixing. From these results we conclude that wild-type PvuII cleaves DNA in a fast and concerted reaction, because the Mg(2+) required for catalysis are already bound at the enzyme, one of them at Tyr94. We suggest that this Mg(2+) is shifted to the active center during binding of a specific DNA substrate. These results, for the first time, shed light on the pathway by which metal ions as essential cofactors enter the catalytic center of restriction endonucleases.

Nutritional control of body size through FoxO-Ultraspiracle mediated ecdysone biosynthesis.

Despite their fundamental importance for body size regulation, the mechanisms that stop growth are poorly understood. In Drosophila melanogaster, growth ceases in response to a peak of the molting hormone ecdysone that coincides with a nutrition-dependent checkpoint, critical weight. Previous studies indicate that insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling (IIS)/Target of Rapamycin (TOR) signaling in the prothoracic glands (PGs) regulates ecdysone biosynthesis and critical weight. Here we elucidate a mechanism through which this occurs. We show that Forkhead Box class O (FoxO), a negative regulator of IIS/TOR, directly interacts with Ultraspiracle (Usp), part of the ecdysone receptor. While overexpressing FoxO in the PGs delays ecdysone biosynthesis and critical weight, disrupting FoxO-Usp binding reduces these delays. Further, feeding ecdysone to larvae eliminates the effects of critical weight. Thus, nutrition controls ecdysone biosynthesis partially via FoxO-Usp prior to critical weight, ensuring that growth only stops once larvae have achieved a target nutritional status.

Oligophrenin-1 (OPHN1), a gene involved in X-linked intellectual disability, undergoes RNA editing and alternative splicing during human brain development.

Oligophrenin-1 (OPHN1) encodes for a Rho-GTPase-activating protein, important for dendritic morphogenesis and synaptic function. Mutations in this gene have been identified in patients with X-linked intellectual disability associated with cerebellar hypoplasia. ADAR enzymes are responsible for A-to-I RNA editing, an essential post-transcriptional RNA modification contributing to transcriptome and proteome diversification. Specifically, ADAR2 activity is essential for brain development and function. Herein, we show that the OPHN1 transcript undergoes post-transcriptional modifications such as A-to-I RNA editing and alternative splicing in human brain and other tissues. We found that OPHN1 editing is detectable already at the 18th week of gestation in human brain with a boost of editing at weeks 20 to 33, concomitantly with OPHN1 expression increase and the appearance of a novel OPHN1 splicing isoform. Our results demonstrate that multiple post-transcriptional events occur on OPHN1, a gene playing an important role in brain function and development.

Crystallization of the Zalpha domain of the human editing enzyme ADAR1 complexed with a DNA-RNA chimeric oligonucleotide in the left-handed Z-conformation.

The Zalpha domain of human double-stranded RNA adenosine deaminase (ADAR1) has been crystallized with a hexanucleotide containing alternating deoxyribose and ribose furanose sugars. Solution circular dichroism experiments show that this double-stranded chimera (dCrG)(3) initially adopts the right-handed A-conformation. However, addition of stoichiometric amounts of Zalpha causes a rapid transition to the Z-conformation. Raman spectroscopy of crystals of the Zalpha-(dCrG)(3) complex confirm that the chimeric oligonucleotide is stabilized in the Z-conformation. A complete data set has been obtained at 2.5 A resolution. The Zalpha-(dCrG)(3) crystals belong to the tetragonal I422 space group, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 104.2, c = 117.6 A. Work is under way to solve the structure by molecular replacement.