Children's Use of Evaluative Devices in Response to the Global TALES Protocol.

INTRODUCTION: It has been well established that the function of sharing personal narratives is to inform the listener about what the event meant to the narrator, for example, by using a range of evaluative devices. The use of these evaluative devices may reflect a person's understanding of the differences between one's own mind and others, by expressing their beliefs, emotions, thoughts, and desires. This paper investigates children's use of evaluative devices when producing personal narratives in response to the six emotion-based prompts contained in the Global TALES protocol (excited, worried, annoyed, proud, problem situation, something important). It addresses three research questions: (1) What types and proportions of evaluative devices do 10-year-old English-speaking children use in response to the six prompts contained in the Global TALES protocol and are there differences in performance between boys and girls? (2) What are the correlations between the different types of evaluative devices? (3) Does children's use of evaluative devices differ depending on the type of prompt used? METHODS: Eighty-two native English-speaking ten-year-old children from three English-speaking countries (Australia, New Zealand, and the USA) participated. None of the children had been identified with language and/or learning difficulties. Children's personal narratives were transcribed and analysed for the use of 12 evaluative devices: compulsion, internal emotional states, evaluative words, intensifiers, mental states, causal explanations, hypotheses, objective judgements, subjective judgements, intent, negatives, and repetition. RESULTS: Results showed that children use a high number of evaluative devices, with "intensifiers" and "evaluative words" used most frequently. There were few effects for sex, apart from girls using a wider range of evaluative devices than boys. We found moderate to large correlations between most devices, with factor analysis revealing three factors we labelled "causality," "hypothesis," and "judgement." Although there were significant overall effects for prompt type on the use of evaluative devices, there was no clear pattern when inspecting responses to individual prompts. CONCLUSION: The results from this study shed light on children's use of evaluative devices to convey the meaning of their personal narratives in response to six different prompts tapping into different emotions. Moving beyond appraising children's structural language skills when narrating their personal experiences may enhance the understanding of interpersonal and intrapersonal aspects of theory of mind, which may inform clinical practices, such as individualized goal setting and intervention choices.

The grammaticality judgement of inflectional morphology in children with and without Developmental Language Disorder.

To explore the clinical potential of grammaticality judgement tasks, this study investigated whether a Grammaticality Judgment Task (GJT) of inflectional morphology could differentiate between a clinically selected sample of children with DLD and children in mainstream (i.e. regular education) schools. We also explored the relationship between grammaticality judgement and measures of receptive vocabulary, receptive grammar, and nonword repetition. Children with DLD (n = 30; age range = 69-80 months) and mainstream children in Pre-primary, Year 1, and Year 2 (n = 89, age range = 61-96 months) were assessed on a GJT of regular past tense, third person singular, and possessive 's. The GJT was sensitive to developmental differences in mainstream children and differentiated children with DLD from Year 1 and 2 mainstream children, with DLD results consistent with a one-year delay in performance compared to controls. The GJT was the strongest discriminator of membership to a clinically selected sample of children with DLD (ROC curve analysis, area under the curve = 88%). Receptive grammar, receptive vocabulary, and nonword repetition were related to performance on the GJT. The grammaticality judgement of inflectional morphology shows promise as a reliable indicator of DLD and a measure sensitive to developmental differences in mainstream children. GJTs should continue to be explored for clinical application as a potential tool for both assessment and intervention.

A profile of expressive inflectional morphology in early school-age children with developmental language disorder.

Previous research has established that children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have difficulties producing inflectional morphology, in particular, finiteness marking. However, other categories of inflectional morphology, such as possessive 's nominal inflection remain relatively unexplored. Analyses of the characteristics for marking inflection, such as allomorphic categories, may increase our understanding of patterns within disordered grammar to inform the design of interventions and target selection. Data from n = 30 early school-aged children (M = 75 months, SD = 3.38, range = 69-81 months) with DLD were analysed to develop a profile of inflectional morphology skills. Morphological categories included expressive regular past tense, third person singular, and possessive 's. Skills were profiled using an elicitation task. The relationships between expressive morphosyntax, and phonological short-term memory and working memory were also explored. Children demonstrated low accuracy in performance across all inflectional categories, including possessive 's. There were no significant differences between productions of different morphemes, but syllabic allomorphs ([əd]; [əz]) were produced with significantly lower accuracy than segmental allomorphs ([d], [t]; [z], [s]) across all morphological categories. All correlations between expressive morphosyntax and measures of memory were non-significant. Children with DLD show broad deficits in the ability to mark for inflection, including possessive 's; this has implications for theories explaining DLD. Findings may contribute to the design of urgently needed interventions for this clinical population.

Evaluating two different dose frequencies and cumulative intervention intensities to improve past tense production for early school-aged children with developmental language disorder.

AIMS: This study compared two dose frequency conditions of an explicit intervention with 50 trials per session designed to improve past tense marking in early school-aged children with developmental language disorder (DLD). The influence of allomorphs on intervention effects was also examined. METHODS: Data from previously conducted intervention studies were combined and analysed. Participants included nine children (mean age = 6;5 years) who received 20-30-min intervention sessions provided twice per week for 10 weeks (1000 trials; 400-600 min) and 20 children (mean age = 6;6) who received 20-30-min intervention sessions provided once per week for 10 weeks (500 trials; 200-300 min). Repeated measures included criterion-referenced probes for production of untrained past tense verbs collected throughout baseline, intervention, and maintenance phases. The rate of progress in each phase was analysed using logistic regression. The proportion of participants who produced past tense allomorphs correctly at pre-intervention, post-intervention, and maintenance testing points was analysed. RESULTS: Logistic regression showed a stable baseline, highly significant progress during the intervention phase, and a marginally significant shallow decline during the maintenance phase. Those in the twice per week group showed a greater rate of progress during the intervention phase leading to significantly higher scores in the maintenance period when compared with the once per week group. The allomorphic category of past tense verbs did not appear to influence outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Participants receiving intervention twice per week appeared to demonstrate a greater rate of progress with intervention than those receiving it once per week, although once per week was also effective. However, these results should be interpreted with caution. Limitations to study design indicate that a larger randomised controlled trial is required. All past tense allomorphs improve to a similar degree when treated with this intervention. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject Understanding the parameters of dosage and intensity are important for clinical practice. Research evaluating the efficacy and/or effectiveness of interventions delivered in different dose/intensity conditions is scarce. There appears to be different interpretations of what constitutes dosage and intensity in published research. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This study retrospectively compared dosage and intensity conditions of intervention provided twice per week to intervention provided once per week. Both dose frequencies could be delivered in clinical settings. Results from this study were analysed by grouping data from multiple testing points, rather than comparing pre-post results. This approach demonstrated the variability of individual performance that would otherwise be lost with conventional methods of analysis. This study demonstrated that all past tense allomorphs improve to a similar degree when treated with this intervention. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Parameters of dosage and intensity are still not clearly defined well enough for translation to clinical practice. In consideration of current research, this intervention may be more effective if delivered twice per week. If clinicians are treating past tense, all allomorphs should be considered as priorities for intervention targets.

Profiling variability and development of spoken discourse in mainstream adolescents.

Competence in spoken discourse is an important consideration during assessment and intervention planning for adolescents with communication difficulties. Currently, a lack of age-appropriate protocols and reference data against which to interpret performance, are barriers when working with this population, particularly those that assess a range of genre and language features. Using a new assessment tool, the Curtin University Discourse Protocol-Adolescent (CUDP-A), this study aimed to collect and describe spoken discourse samples from a large group of adolescents (n = 160), aged 12 to 15 years, recruited to represent a mainstream academic cohort. For each participant, samples of recount (n = 3), expository (n = 3), persuasive (n = 3), and narrative (n = 2) discourse were described using theoretically supported measurements sensitive to micro-linguistic, micro-structural, macro-structural, and super-structural discourse features. Participants also completed a standardized assessment of oral language. Variability was found in micro-linguistic and micro-structural features, with stability seen in macro-structural and super-structural features. Few age- and gender-related differences were observed, while multiple significant correlations between spoken discourse and oral language variables were revealed across the sample. The CUDP-A was successful in eliciting spoken discourse across genres relevant to social and academic contexts, enabling an in-depth description of adolescent discourse. This tool, supported by the reference data, provides a new opportunity to assess spoken discourse skills in adolescents from clinical populations, e.g., acquired brain injury or developmental disorders. Further research is needed to examine factors influencing discourse ability, such as those that may be related to genre, or contextual factors related to the presence of communication partners, with novel tools such as the CUDP-A facilitating this.

The evaluation of word-learning abilities in people with developmental language disorder: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND: The ability to learn new words is critical in the development of oral and written language, and significantly impacts engagement in social, academic and vocational situations. Many studies have evaluated the word-learning process in people with developmental language disorder (DLD). However, methodologies for assessment are heterogeneous, creating difficulties in synthesizing findings and identifying gaps in the knowledge base. AIMS: To scope systematically the literature and identify key methodological parameters considered in evaluations of word learning in people with DLD; and to identify gaps in the literature to guide further research in this area. METHODS & PROCEDURES: Twelve databases were searched and a total of 70 studies that met eligibility criteria were identified. The studies were evaluated according to key parameters that researchers varied in their word-learning methodologies. MAIN CONTRIBUTION: Most research has focused on word learning in the oral modality, and specifically in children with DLD. Fewer studies have explored word learning in adults and adolescents with DLD, and in the written modality. Depending on the research question and theoretical perspective driving the investigation, methodologies for assessing word learning considered a range of parameters, including words being learned, learning context and cues to support learning in the tasks. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: This review aggregates a variety of methods used previously to assess word learning. Findings highlight the need for further research to explore areas such as: the learning of varied word types (e.g., adjectives and adverbs); learning in the written modality; and word learning (both oral and written) in adolescents and adults with DLD.

A profile of the language and cognitive skills contributing to oral inferential comprehension in young children with developmental language disorder.

BACKGROUND: Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) demonstrate poor oral inferential comprehension. Research investigating the skills that underpin oral inferential comprehension in young children with DLD is necessary in order to better understand and improve inferential comprehension in this population. AIMS: To profile the language and cognitive skills that contribute to oral inferential comprehension in young children with DLD. METHODS & PROCEDURES: Seventy-six children aged 5-6 years with a diagnosis of DLD were assessed on a wide range of language and cognitive measures. Oral inferential comprehension of narrative was the primary outcome measure. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: Narrative macrostructure and microstructure, literal comprehension, vocabulary, phonological loop, and theory of mind were significant predictors of inferential comprehension in bivariate analyses. However, multivariate regression analysis indicated that only narrative retell macrostructure and theory of mind contributed a significant amount of unique variance to inferential comprehension. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: This study profiled the skills contributing to oral inferential comprehension in young children with DLD, to support the clinical and theoretical understanding of the ability in this population. The findings have implications for future intervention studies.

Discourse and cognition in speakers with acquired brain injury (ABI): a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive impairment, particularly of executive functioning, has been implicated in deficits in spoken discourse production following acquired brain injury (ABI). However, due to variation in the methodologies and heterogeneity of findings across studies, the nature and extent of this association is not well understood. AIMS: This review aims to synthesize the literature investigating associations between cognitive deficits and discourse impairment after ABI. It is reported in accordance with guidelines of The Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. DATA SOURCES: Searches were conducted of a variety of databases including Medline, PsycINFO, EMBASE, CINAHL, ProQuest, Cochrane and ERIC. Additional studies were identified via reference harvesting. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Studies were included if they reported data on participants with ABI, assessed spoken discourse production and cognitive function, and performed statistical analyses to determine the association between discourse and cognitive variables. This review excluded non-English sources and those not published in peer-reviewed journals. Meta-analyses were not conducted due to variability across tools and terminology used to describe participant injury- and non-injury-related characteristics and outcomes. RESULTS: Twenty-five observational studies were included in the review. Findings revealed significant associations between multiple cognitive functions and discourse across micro-linguistic to super-structural measures. Methodological and terminological inconsistencies were identified across studies, which limited systematic comparison of the results. CONCLUSIONS: This review revealed present, yet heterogeneous, relationships between cognitive and discourse deficits in speakers with ABI. Associations were interpreted in light of a well-established model of discourse processing. Greater comparison across studies would have been facilitated by a standard nomenclature in relation to cognitive constructs and standardized discourse assessment. Future research should explore the influence of injury- and participant-related factors on discourse-cognitive relationships. The lack of information on conversational discourse and paediatric ABI limits the generalizability of this review to daily interaction following ABI. While applicable across the lifespan, in-depth investigation of discourse following ABI in childhood and adolescence is a priority due to complex changes in language and cognition, and the potential for impairments profoundly impact social, emotional and academic progression into adulthood. Given the centrality of remediating cognitive-communication difficulties in ABI, the interrelationships between discourse and cognition should retain a critical focus of research. This will inform clinical management and future research with this population. Findings have implications for our theoretical understanding of discourse and the nature of its breakdown in ABI.

Can we separate verbs from their argument structure? A group study in aphasia.

BACKGROUND: Given the integral role that verbs play in sentence production, understanding verb deficits is critical to clinical practice. Difficulties in sentence production are often directly related to an inability to retrieve argument structure information which, according to most theoretical accounts, is specified at a lexical level as part of the semantic representation of the verb. The presence of an argument complexity effect when retrieving verbs in isolation, i.e. increased difficulty with increasing number of arguments required by the verb, is considered evidence of the integral link between verbs and the ensuing structure. Recent reports, however, of relatively intact verb retrieval and impaired argument structure suggest that difficulties with verbs and argument structure may not always co-occur. One explanation for this is that lexical-syntactic information may be stored separately to lexical-semantic information at the lemma level and then differentially impaired. AIMS: To determine whether the presence of difficulties creating argument structure in a group of people with aphasia with verb-retrieval deficits consistently aligned with the underlying nature of their impairment, where semantic involvement resulted in argument structure difficulties and post-semantic impairment resulted in intact argument structure. This would provide evidence either to support or to challenge the view that argument structure is lexically specified. The presence of an argument complexity effect within the participants' single verb naming was also investigated to examine the relationship between verb argument information and any subsequent difficulties creating argument structure for sentence production. METHODS & PROCEDURES: Verb retrieval and argument structure production were investigated in 12 people with aphasia with verb-retrieval deficits on single-word and sentence-production measures. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: Eight of the 12 participants presented with a semantic verb deficit (five semantic and three mixed semantic and phonological) and had difficulties in creating argument structure. Four participants presented with a phonological verb deficit. Of these, two had intact argument structure while two had impaired argument structure. An argument complexity effect in verb naming was seen in both groups. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: Semantic verb-retrieval deficits consistently resulted in argument structure production difficulties, supporting the view that syntactic information is stored within the lemma. The presence of argument structure difficulties in two participants with phonological deficits; however, lends support for the separate coding of lexical-syntactic from lexical-semantic information at the lemma level, a factor that has both theoretical and clinical implications with respect to diagnosis and management.

Why Are Reading Difficulties Associated with Mental Health Problems?

A growing literature indicates that children with reading difficulties are at elevated risk for mental health problems; however, little attention has been given to why this might be the case. Associations between reading difficulties and mental health differ substantially across studies, raising the possibility that these relationships may be ameliorated or exacerbated by risk or resilience-promoting factors. Using socio-ecological theory as a conceptual framework, we outline four potential lines of research that could shed light on why children with reading difficulties are at risk of mental health problems and identify potential targets for intervention. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The relationship between phonological short-term memory, receptive vocabulary, and fast mapping in children with specific language impairment.

BACKGROUND: Children with specific language impairment (SLI) often experience word-learning difficulties, which are suggested to originate in the early stage of word learning: fast mapping. Some previous research indicates significantly poorer fast mapping capabilities in children with SLI compared with typically developing (TD) counterparts, with a range of methodological factors impacting on the consistency of this finding. Research has explored key issues that might underlie fast mapping difficulties in children with SLI, with strong theoretical support but little empirical evidence for the role of phonological short-term memory (STM). Additionally, further research is required to explore the influence of receptive vocabulary on fast mapping capabilities. Understanding the factors associated with fast mapping difficulties that are experienced by children with SLI may lead to greater theoretically driven word-learning intervention. AIMS: To investigate whether children with SLI demonstrate significant difficulties with fast mapping, and to explore the related factors. It was hypothesized that children with SLI would score significantly lower on a fast mapping production task compared with TD children, and that phonological STM and receptive vocabulary would significantly predict fast mapping production scores in both groups of children. METHODS & PROCEDURES: Twenty-three children with SLI (mean = 64.39 months, SD = 4.10 months) and 26 TD children (mean = 65.92 months, SD = 2.98) were recruited from specialist language and mainstream schools. All participants took part in a unique, interactive fast-mapping task whereby nine novel objects with non-word labels were presented and production accuracy was assessed. A non-word repetition test and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition (PPVT-IV) were also administered as measures of phonological STM capacity and receptive vocabulary, respectively. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: Results of the fast-mapping task indicated that children with SLI had significantly poorer fast mapping production scores than TD children. Scores from the non-word repetition task were also significantly lower for the SLI group, revealing reduced phonological STM capacity. Phonological STM capacity and receptive vocabulary emerged as significant predictors of fast mapping performance when the group data were combined in a multiple regression analysis. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: These results suggest that the word-learning difficulties experienced by children with SLI may originate at the fast mapping stage, and that phonological STM and receptive vocabulary significantly predict fast mapping ability. These findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of word-learning difficulties in children with SLI and may inform lexical learning intervention.

Beyond narrative: Is there an implicit structure to the way in which adults organise their discourse?

Understanding the structure of discourse in healthy adults is fundamental to the assessment and diagnosis of discourse level impairments in clinical populations and the development of effective treatment regimes. Exploring discourse genre in healthy speakers that extend beyond the traditional narrative is equally paramount in facilitating maximum impact of clinical interventions in everyday speaking contexts. This study aimed to characterise the discourse of 30 healthy adult speakers across three age groups (20-39, 40-59 and 60+ years) and four discourse genres (recount, procedural, exposition and narrative), drawing on discourse frameworks used in classroom teaching. A clinically useful discourse protocol and analytic procedure using SALT was developed that profiled the macrostructure and key aspects of linguistic microstructure of the different genres, exploring coherence and cohesion within and across genre in a systematic manner. Analyses considered whether there were differences in coherence and cohesion among the different age groups, different genres and specific topics. Results showed that, while individual variability was present, healthy adults structured their discourse consistently, adhering to the frameworks described in the developmental literature, across all four genres. Significant age differences were only seen in the amount of information contained in the body of the discourse (i.e. events, steps or statements offered) with older participants offering less information. This dataset will enable comparisons to be drawn with clinical populations to determine the utility and the feasibility of the use of this framework for diagnosis and intervention.

The model of access to speech-language pathology services.

PURPOSE: Within Australia, some families face challenges in accessing paediatric speech-language pathology services. This research sought to investigate the factors that impact access to paediatric speech-language pathology services within Western Australia. METHOD: Researchers used constructivist grounded theory to investigate the construct of access, as experienced and perceived by service decision-makers, namely caregivers of children with communication needs and speech-language pathologists who provide communication services. Eleven speech-language pathologists and 16 caregivers took part in 32 semi-structured in-depth interviews. Researchers used layers of coding of interviews transcripts and the constant comparative method to investigate data. RESULT: Findings outline the factors that impact access to speech-language pathology services, as organised into the seven categories of the Model of Access to Speech-Language Pathology Services (MASPS). The categories and properties of this model are grounded within experiences and perspectives that participants contributed to the dataset. CONCLUSION: MASPS provides a theoretical structure that has been constructed using inductive and abductive reasoning. This model can be used by service designers and decision-makers to reflect upon and improve experiences of service for a range of consumers. MASPS can also be used as a basis for further investigation into aspects of service access.

Assessment and theoretical interpretation of spoken discourse and cognitive skills in two adolescents with acquired brain injury.

PURPOSE: Although discourse assessment is recommended, few tools exist for adolescent acquired brain injury (ABI) and few theories describe the contribution of cognition to discourse impairment. This study explored whether a novel discourse protocol can identify difficulties following ABI and whether a discourse processing model provides a useful account of impairment. METHOD: Using a case-control design, two adolescent males with moderate ABI (12 and 14 years) were compared to a neurotypical sample on a range of language and cognitive assessments. Patterns in performance were interpreted using a theoretical model. Participants completed a standardised omnibus language assessment, discourse assessment, and battery of cognitive tasks. RESULT: Analyses revealed significant differences in discourse and cognition between adolescents with and without ABI. No impairment was detected on a standardised language assessment. Patterns in discourse and cognition aligned with a contemporary model of discourse processing. CONCLUSION: Participants with ABI demonstrated discourse deficits relative to the neurotypical reference sample. The findings demonstrate the value of discourse sampling across multiple genres and analysis of microlinguistic to superstructural features. A structure-building framework (SBF) model, originating in schizophrenia, provides a promising theory with which to interpret discourse impairment and has the potential to inform intervention for discourse in ABI.

An international survey of assessment and treatment practice for discourse in paediatric Acquired Brain Injury.

PURPOSE: Guidelines recommend routine discourse assessment and treatment in paediatric acquired brain injury (ABI) but provide little guidance for clinical practice. The degree to which this has influenced the nature of discourse assessment and treatment in clinical practice has not been examined in detail. METHOD: Speech-language pathologists working in paediatric ABI (clients aged <18 years) in Australia, New Zealand, the UK, the USA, Canada, and the Asia Pacific region were invited to complete a survey of discourse assessment and intervention practices (n = 77). RESULT: Clinicians from Australia and New Zealand comprised over half of a responses (53%). The largest proportion had over 10 years' experience (60%), worked in the metropolitan area (58%), and with secondary school-age children (64%). Routine discourse assessment was undertaken by 80% of respondents, focussing on a limited range of genres. No preferred intervention approach was identified. One-quarter of clinicians routinely considered holistic factors during clinical decision-making. Limited normative data and treatment evidence, insufficient time and training were identified as clinical barriers. CONCLUSION: Assessment practices were consistent with guidelines, yet interventions were highly variable, reflecting limited evidence, client heterogeneity, time constraints, and limited training. A biopsychosocial approach to practice was evident, yet a focus on impairment level factors was prominent. Findings support the need for standardised discourse assessment and discourse intervention methods. Translation into practice guidelines would promote consistency and confidence in clinical practice.

Correction: Global TALES feasibility study: Personal narratives in 10-year-old children around the world.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273114.].

Acquisition of Tok Pisin phonology in the multilingual highlands of Papua New Guinea.

Purpose: Papua New Guinea (PNG) has extreme linguistic diversity reflected in its three national languages and sociolinguistic diversity comprising over 380 vernaculars or Tokples, English and the lingua francas, which include Tok Pisin (TP). This first clinical cross-sectional study of consonant acquisition in TP-speaking children sought to identify universal features and the impact of age on phonological development.Method: A local picture naming task was developed and used to elicit a speech sample from 80 children (aged 3;0-6;11). Phonetic and phonemic inventories and developmental phonological processes were analysed across the sample and also in 12-month age groups.Result: Statistically significant differences were found between the Percentage Consonants Correct (PCC) of the 3YO and other age groups. Mean PCC increased with age, but high variation within age groups meant differences were not statistically significant. Universal features observed included the early acquisition of plosives and late mastery of /r/. Language-specific features included processes such as fricatisation and earlier acquisition of /ʤ/ before /s/. Creolisation was seen in morphophonemic condensation and the influence of loanwords.Conclusion: This study demonstrates both universal and language-specific features amidst wide diversity influencing phonological acquisition in creolising TP. This first phonological study of TP consonant development will inform future clinical speech-language pathology practice in PNG.

Assessing children's vocabulary: An exploratory cross-sectional survey of speech-language pathologists.

Purpose: Past research highlights the importance of evaluating word learning abilities to build understanding of an individual's language-learning capacity and make evidence-informed decisions in speech-language pathology practice. However, little research has explored vocabulary and word learning assessment practices among speech-language pathologists (SLPs). This pilot, exploratory study aimed to explore current assessment practices and guide translation of research to practice among SLPs who work with children of all ages.Method: SLPs (N = 127) from three predominantly English-speaking countries (Australia, USA, and UK) completed an online survey. The survey explored methods and purposes for assessing vocabulary knowledge and word learning skills via binary and multiple-choice questions. Responses to three open-ended questions were analysed using conventional content analysis. The survey also asked about perspectives regarding assessment practices with individuals from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds.Result: Of the surveyed SLPs, 118 (92%) reported using norm-referenced measures of vocabulary, with 27 reporting additional use of non-normed measures. Seventy-seven SLPs (61%) reported that they measure word learning skills, and 20 of these SLPs used dynamic assessment procedures to evaluate word learning. Responding SLPs across all three countries reported using vocabulary and word learning assessment data in a variety of ways (e.g. to support diagnostic decision-making). Regarding the use of standardised, norm-referenced vocabulary assessments with individuals from CALD backgrounds, SLPs reported concerns regarding poor cultural sensitivity and limited access to alternative methods.Conclusion: The findings highlight the need for further development and dissemination of accessible resources to support SLPs' implementation of word learning assessment, including resources for dynamic assessment. This is especially critical considering the established limitations associated with using standardised, norm-referenced tests with minority groups who are underrepresented in standardisation samples.

Global TALES feasibility study: Personal narratives in 10-year-old children around the world.

Personal narratives make up more than half of children's conversations. The ability to share personal narratives helps build and maintain friendships, promotes physical and emotional wellbeing, supports classroom participation, and underpins academic success and vocational outcomes. Although personal narratives are a universal discourse genre, cross-cultural and cross-linguistic research into children's ability to share personal narratives is in its infancy. The current study addresses this gap in the research by developing the Global TALES protocol, a protocol comprising six scripted prompts for eliciting personal narratives in school-age children (excited, worried, annoyed, proud, problem situation, something important). We evaluated its feasibility with 249 ten-year-old children from 10 different countries, speaking 8 different languages, and analyzed researchers' views on the process of adapting the protocol for use in their own country/language. At group-level, the protocol elicited discourse samples from all children, although individual variability was evident, with most children providing responses to all six prompts. When investigating the topics of children's personal narratives in response to the prompts, we found that children from around the world share many commonalities regarding topics of conversation. Once again individual variability was high, indicating the protocol is effective in prompting children to share their past personal experiences without forcing them to focus on one particular topic. Feedback from the participating researchers on the use of the protocol in their own countries was generally positive, although several translation issues were noted. Based on our results, we now invite clinical researchers from around the world to join us in conducting further research into this important area of practice to obtain a better understanding of the development of personal narratives from children across different languages and cultures and to begin to establish local benchmarks of performance.

Word learning and verbal working memory in children with developmental language disorder.

Background and aims: Previous research into word learning in children with developmental language disorder (DLD) indicates that the learning of word forms and meanings, rather than form-referent links, is problematic. This difficulty appears to arise with impaired encoding, while retention of word knowledge remains intact. Evidence also suggests that word learning skills may be related to verbal working memory. We aimed to substantiate these findings in the current study by exploring word learning over a series of days. Methods: Fifty children with DLD (mean age 6; 11, 72% male) and 54 age-matched typically developing (TD) children (mean age 6; 10, 56% male) were taught eight novel words across a four-day word learning protocol. Day 1 measured encoding, Days 2 and 3 measured re-encoding, and Day 4 assessed retention. At each day, word learning success was evaluated using Naming, Recognition, Description, and Identification tasks. Results: Children with DLD showed comparable performance to the TD group on the Identification task, indicating an intact ability to learn the form-referent links. In contrast, children with DLD performed significantly worse for Naming and Recognition (signifying an impaired ability to learn novel word forms), and for Description, indicating problems establishing new word meanings. These deficits for the DLD group were apparent at Days 1, 2, and 3 of testing, indicating impairments with initial encoding and re-encoding; however, the DLD and TD groups demonstrated a similar rate of learning. All children found the retention assessments at Day 4 difficult, and there were no significant group differences. Finally, verbal working memory emerged as a significant moderator of performance on the Naming and Recognition tasks, such that children with DLD and poor verbal working memory had the lowest levels of accuracy. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that children with DLD struggle with learning novel word forms and meanings, but are unimpaired in their ability to establish new form-referent links. The findings suggest that the word learning deficit may be attributed to problems with encoding, rather than with retention, of new word knowledge; however, further exploration is required given the poor performance of both groups for retention testing. Furthermore, we found evidence that an impaired ability to learn word forms may only be apparent in children who have DLD and low levels of verbal working memory. Implications: When working with children with DLD, speech-language pathologists should assess word learning using tasks that evaluate the ability to learn word forms, meanings, and form-referent links to develop a profile of individual word learning strengths and weaknesses. Clinicians should also assess verbal working memory to identify children at particular risk of word learning deficits. Future research should explore the notion of optimal intervention intensity for facilitating word learning in children with poor language and verbal working memory.