Amdoparvovirus-associated disease in red pandas (Ailurus fulgens).

The roster of amdoparvoviruses (APVs) in small carnivores is growing rapidly, but in most cases, the consequences of infection are poorly understood. Red panda amdoparvovirus (RPAV) is highly prevalent in zoo-housed red pandas and has been detected in both healthy and sick animals. Clarifying the clinical impact of RPAV in this endangered species is critical, and zoological collections offer a unique opportunity to examine viral disease association in carefully managed populations. We evaluated the potential impact of RPAV in captive red pandas with a combination of prospective and retrospective analyses. First, we collected feces from 2 healthy animals from one collection over a 6-year period and detected virus in 72/75 total samples, suggesting that RPAV can be a long-term subclinical infection. We next investigated the infections using a retrospective study of infection status and tissue distribution in a cohort of necropsied animals. We performed polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization on 43 necropsy cases from 4 zoo collections (3 from the United States, 1 from Europe, 1997-2022). RPAV was present in these populations for at least 2 decades before its discovery and is detectable in common and significant lesions of zoo-housed red pandas, including myocarditis (3/3 cases), nephritis (9/10), and interstitial pneumonia (2/4). RPAV is also detectable in sporadic lesions, including multisystemic pyogranulomatous inflammation, oral/pharyngeal mucosal inflammation, and dermatitis. The colocalization of virus with lesions supports a role in causation, suggesting that despite the apparently persistent and subclinical carriage of most infections, RPAV may have a significant impact in zoo collections.

CLINICAL AND PATHOLOGIC FINDINGS IN IGUANIDS WITH SODIUM URATE CHOLELITHIASIS.

Four green iguanas (Iguana iguana) and one blue iguana (Cyclura lewisi) from five facilities were diagnosed with sodium urate cholelithiasis. One case was diagnosed antemortem via ultrasonography, and the iguana underwent a choledochotomy for treatment. The other four cases were identified at necropsy. Pathologic hepatic and biliary changes were present in four of the five cases at necropsy. Histologically, four iguanas had hepatic fibrosis, three had bile duct hyperplasia, and one had cholangiohepatitis and pancreaticocholedochitis. Two iguanas had pathologic renal changes. This is the first report of sodium urate cholelithiasis in reptiles. This case series highlights the potential significant clinical disease caused by sodium urate cholelithiasis and the importance of biliary system evaluation. Further investigation is recommended to explore the pathogenesis of reptilian sodium urate cholelith formation.

THE USE OF INTRADERMAL SKIN TESTING AND HYPOSENSITIZATION INJECTIONS TO CONTROL SEASONAL DERMATITIS IN GREATER ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROSES (RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS).

Allergic dermatitis was diagnosed in a 25-yr-old female greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and her 6-yr-old female offspring by skin biopsy, intradermal skin testing (IDST), and allergen-specific serum IgE testing. Dam and offspring presented with seasonal, erosive, and ulcerative dermatitis affecting the face, legs, and trunk starting at 6 and 2 yr of age, respectively. IDST was performed at the caudal pinnal base using 61 regionally specific allergens. Specific serum allergen responses were detected using Heska's Equine ALLERCEPT® Allergen Panel. Histopathology of the lesions was consistent with an allergic etiology. Injectable allergen-specific immunotherapy was initiated in both animals and within 6 to 18 mon after commencing hyposensitization clinical improvement was noted. This report documents a repeatable methodology for IDST and serological allergen testing for use in rhinoceroses. The hyposensitization protocol detailed here can help guide future treatment protocols.

A REVIEW OF MORTALITY IN TENTACLED SNAKES (ERPETON TENTACULATUM) IN A MULTI-INSTITUTION ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTION BETWEEN 1966 AND 2017.

The tentacled snake (Erpeton tentaculatum) is a viviparous aquatic snake that is a desirable species to exhibit in zoological collections because of its unique appearance and feeding strategies. Despite its presence in zoo collections over the past 50 yr, a comprehensive review of mortality and morbidity in the species has not been published. This study retrospectively reviewed 125 pathology reports from tentacled snakes in a multi-institution zoological collection in New York (The Wildlife Conservation Society's Bronx and Central Park zoos) between 1966 and 2017. Just over half of the deaths were due to infectious disease (n = 67; 53.6%), and of these, over half (n = 40; 59.7%) were due to fungal dermatitis. Fungal histomorphology was consistent with Paranannizziopsis spp. in most cases. Death due to bacterial infection was also relatively common (n = 21; 16.8%), and one-third had intralesional bacilli consistent with Mycobacterium spp. (n = 7; 5.6%). The most common comorbidities included gastrointestinal parasitism (n = 44; 35.2%), renal pathology (n = 31; 24.8%), and lipid accumulation of hepatocytes (n = 13; 10.4%). This retrospective review suggests that managing infectious diseases plays a role in the long-term care and survival of captive tentacled snakes.

A RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF AMOEBIASIS IN REPTILES IN A ZOOLOGICAL INSTITUTION.

Amoebiasis is a significant protozoal disease of reptiles causing nonspecific clinical signs including diarrhea, anorexia, and lethargy. It frequently results in acute death. Investigation of the pathophysiology of amoebiasis in reptiles has been hampered by the inability to accurately identify amoeba to the species level using conventional techniques. This study reviewed reptile medical records from the Wildlife Conservation Society's archives from 1998 to 2017. Amoebae were identified histologically in 54 cases in 31 different species. Of these, amoebiasis was the cause of death in 32 (18 chelonians, 7 lizards, and 7 snakes), a significant co-morbidity in 14 (six chelonians, two lizards, and six snakes), and seen incidentally in eight cases (one chelonian, six lizards, and one snake). Relocation from one enclosure to another was also evaluated and 65% of cases had been moved within 180 days of death (median 46 days). Frozen tissue samples from 19 of these cases were tested via an Entamoeba (genus-specific) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. PCR products were sequenced and Entamoeba species were identified. Six individuals were positive for Entamoeba invadens (three chelonians, two snakes, one lizard), two for Entamoeba ranarum (both snakes), and one for Entamoeba terrapinae (chelonian); the other 10 cases were negative via PCR. Entamoeba ranarum has typically been considered a disease of amphibians with only one report of disease in a snake. Entamoeba terrapinae has only been reported without associated disease in chelonians. These results suggest that amoebiasis is a complicated and nuanced disease of reptiles, and warrants additional study.

SARCOCYSTOSIS IN A CAPTIVE FLOCK OF THICK-BILLED PARROTS (RHYNCHOPSITTA PACHYRHYNCHA) FROM 2005 TO 2016: MORBIDITY, MORTALITY, DIAGNOSTICS, AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES.

Sarcocystosis was diagnosed in a captive flock of thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) at the Wildlife Conservation Society's Queens Zoo. Since the index case in 2005, 45% of mortalities in birds over 30 days of age were due to sarcocystosis. Sarcocystis falcatula was repeatedly identified as the causative agent. The disease predominantly affected younger adult parrots. Administration of antiparasitic medications prior to development of respiratory signs prolonged life in infected birds, but disease was fatal until utilization of a three-drug combination (pyrimethamine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and ponazuril). This protocol may require in excess of 6 mo of therapy to achieve clinical resolution of active disease. Plasma creatine kinase activity was found to be the most useful test in diagnosing infection and monitoring response to therapy. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for apicomplexan organisms on antemortem whole blood, blood smears, or dried blood spots helped confirm suspected cases, but due to the poor sensitivity was sometimes misleading when assessing response to therapy or resolution of clinical disease. Preventive measures, focusing on exclusion and removal of Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) from zoo grounds failed to curtail the occurrence of sarcocystosis in the flock. Other preventative steps, such as modification of feeding stations to exclude potential arthropod paratenic hosts and prophylaxis trials with diclazuril, appeared to successfully mitigate new infections. Given the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, prevention of exposure to S. falcatula is essential to ex-situ conservation efforts for thick-billed parrots.

ANALYSIS OF PLASMODIUM LINEAGES IDENTIFIED IN CAPTIVE PENGUINS (SPHENISCIFORMES SPP.), EIDERS (SOMATERIA SPP.), AND INCA TERNS (LAROSTERNA INCA) IN A NORTH AMERICAN ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTION.

Vector-borne Plasmodium spp. infect a wide range of bird species. Although infections may be asymptomatic, certain genera, especially those that evolved in regions without endemic malaria, appear particularly susceptible to symptomatic disease, leading to morbidity and mortality. High mortalities associated with malaria infections have been documented in captive species of Sphenisciformes, Somateria, and Larosterna, all genera that evolved in climates with low mosquito exposure. To better characterize trends in Plasmodium-related mortality in a zoological collection in New York, necropsy reports for birds of all three genera that died between 1998 and February 2018 were analyzed; comparisons were made between birds that died with or without evidence of malaria infection. A seasonal peak in deaths was observed in birds regardless of their malaria status. There was no significant difference in the age of birds at death between malaria-positive and malaria-negative animals. These results suggest that age and season of death were not associated with malaria status. To investigate an association between parasite lineage and clinical outcome, polymerase chain reaction was used to identify parasite lineage in necropsied birds as well as healthy birds sampled as part of surveillance studies. Twelve different Plasmodium lineages were identified. The relative prevalence of parasite lineages was compared between necropsy and surveillance samples. A single parasite lineage, SGS1 (species: Plasmodium relictum), was significantly more likely to be found in surveillance samples; it was detected in a plurality of surveillance data but found in only one necropsy case. Other parasite lineages were more likely to be found in necropsies than in surveillance samples, most notably SEIAUR01 (species: Plasmodium cathemerium). These data may be consistent with a difference in virulence between parasite lineages. This investigation has implications for the monitoring and care of vulnerable avian species.

Mycoplasmopsis-associated Proliferative Pneumonia in a Bog Turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii).

Lower respiratory tract disease associated with mycoplasmal infection was detected in a free-ranging bog turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii) from New Jersey, USA. The presence of a mycoplasmal organism was confirmed by PCR and electron microscopy. Fluid-filled lungs were observed grossly, and there was proliferative pneumonia on histopathology.

Computed tomography of granulomatous pneumonia with oxalosis in an American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) associated with Metarhizium anisopliae var anisopliae.

An 18-yr-old, male, albino, American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) was evaluated for decreased appetite and abnormal buoyancy. Computed tomography (CT) of the coelomic cavity showed multifocal mineral and soft tissue attenuating pulmonary masses consistent with pulmonary fungal granulomas. Additionally, multifocal areas of generalized, severe emphysema and pulmonary and pleural thickening were identified. The alligator was euthanized and necropsy revealed severe fungal pneumonia associated with oxalosis. Metarhizium anisopliae var. anisopliae was cultured from lung tissue and exhibited oxalate crystal formation in vitro. Crystals were identified as calcium oxalate monohydrate by X-ray powder defractometry. Fungal identification was based on morphology, including tissue sporulation, and DNA sequence analysis. This organism is typically thought of as an entomopathogen. Clinical signs of fungal pneumonia in nonavian reptiles are often inapparent until the disease is at an advanced stage, making antemortem diagnosis challenging. This case demonstrates the value of CT for pulmonary assessment and diagnosis of fungal pneumonia in the American alligator. Fungal infection with associated oxalosis should not be presumed to be aspergillosis.

Systemic Helicobacter infection and associated mortalities in endangered Grand Cayman blue iguanas (Cyclura lewisi) and introduced green iguanas (Iguana iguana).

The Blue Iguana Recovery Programme maintains a captive breeding and head-starting program for endangered Grand Cayman blue iguanas (Cyclura lewisi) on Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands. In May 2015, program staff encountered two lethargic wild Grand Cayman blue iguanas within the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park (QEIIBP). Spiral-shaped bacteria were identified on peripheral blood smears from both animals, which molecular diagnostics identified as a novel Helicobacter species (provisionary name Helicobacter sp. GCBI1). Between March 2015 and February 2017, 11 Grand Cayman blue iguanas were identified with the infection. Two of these were found dead and nine were treated; five of the nine treated animals survived the initial infection. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene suggests Helicobacter sp. GCBI1 is most closely related to Helicobacter spp. in chelonians. We developed a Taqman qPCR assay specific for Helicobacter sp. GCBI1 to screen tissue and/or blood samples from clinical cases, fecal and cloacal samples from clinically healthy Grand Cayman blue iguanas, including previously infected and recovered iguanas, and iguanas housed adjacent to clinical cases. Fecal and/or cloacal swab samples were all negative, suggesting that Grand Cayman blue iguanas do not asymptomatically carry this organism nor shed this pathogen per cloaca post infection. Retrospective analysis of a 2014 mortality event affecting green iguanas (Iguana iguana) from a separate Grand Cayman location identified Helicobacter sp. GCBI1 in two of three cases. The source of infection and mode of transmission are yet to be confirmed. Analysis of rainfall data reveal that all infections occurred during a multi-year dry period, and most occurred shortly after the first rains at the end of seasonal drought. Additionally, further screening has identified Helicobacter sp. GCBI1 from choanal swabs of clinically normal green iguanas in the QEIIBP, suggesting they could be asymptomatic carriers and a potential source of the pathogen.

PSEUDORABIES (AUJESZKY'S DISEASE) IS AN UNDERDIAGNOSED CAUSE OF DEATH IN THE FLORIDA PANTHER (PUMA CONCOLOR CORYI).

Feral swine (Sus scrofa), an important prey species for the endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), is the natural host for pseudorabies virus (PRV). Prior to this study, PRV had been detected in just three panthers. To determine the effect of PRV on the panther population, we prospectively necropsied 199 panthers and retrospectively reviewed necropsy and laboratory findings, reexamined histology, and tested archived tissues using real-time PCR from 46 undiagnosed panther mortalities. Seven additional infections (two prospective, five retrospective) were detected for a total of 10 confirmed panther mortalities due to PRV. To further evaluate the effect of PRV, we categorized radio-collared (n=168) and uncollared panther mortalities (n=367) sampled from 1981 to 2018 based on the likelihood of PRV infection as confirmed, probable, suspected, possible, or unlikely/negative. Of 168 radio-collared panthers necropsied, PRV was the cause of death for between eight (confirmed; 4.8%) and 32 (combined confirmed, probable, suspected, and possible categories; 19.0%) panthers. The number of radio-collared panther mortalities due to PRV was estimated to be 15 (95% empirical limits: 12-19), representing 8.9% (confidence interval: 4.6-13.2%) of mortalities. Gross necropsy findings in 10 confirmed cases were nonspecific. Microscopic changes included slight to mild perivascular cuffing and gliosis (primarily in the brain stem), lymphoplasmacytic meningoencephalitis (cerebral cortex), and intranuclear inclusion bodies (adrenal medulla). The PRV glycoprotein C gene sequences from three positive panthers grouped with the sequence from a Florida feral swine. Our findings indicate that PRV may be an important and underdiagnosed cause of death in Florida panthers.

Diagnosis and treatment of presumptive postobstructive pulmonary edema in a Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi).

A free-ranging, adult male Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) was immobilized and evaluated for hematuria following routine capture. Prior to anesthetic recovery, the panther was fitted with a telemetry collar. After an initially quiet recovery, the panther began thrashing in the transport cage, and was again immobilized. Pink foam was evident from the nostrils, and crackles were ausculted over the chest, indicating pulmonary edema. Postobstructive pulmonary edema was diagnosed based on history, clinical signs, radiographic evaluation, and blood gas analysis. The animal was treated intensively for several hours with diuretics, oxygen, and manual ventilation. The panther responded rapidly to therapy and was released back into the wild 48 hr after presentation. Postobstructive pulmonary edema, also called negative-pressure pulmonary edema, may be underrecognized in veterinary medicine. In this case, the telemetry collar, in conjunction with anesthetic recovery in a small transport crate, may have contributed to tracheal obstruction. Wildlife veterinarians and biologists should be aware of the risk of airway obstruction when placing tracking collars, and animals should be continuously monitored during anesthetic recovery to ensure the presence of a patent airway.

Incomplete ovariosalpingectomy and subsequent malignant granulosa cell tumor in a female green iguana (Iguana iguana).

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 9-year-old spayed female green iguana (Iguana iguana) was evaluated because of a distended coelom and weight loss. History included a single episode of egg binding and subsequent bilateral ovariosalpingectomy. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Physical examination revealed a mass within the coelomic cavity. Ultrasonography revealed a large, irregular mass with hypoechoic regions and coelomic effusion. Clinicopathologic derangements included heterophilia, monocytosis, lymphopenia, basophilia, hypocholesterolemia, hypoproteinemia, and hypercalcemia. Results of cytologic evaluation of the mass were suggestive of malignant epithelial neoplasia, but neoplastic cells were not found in the effusion. An ovarian tumor was suspected on the basis of clinical signs, clinicopathologic findings, and results of cytologic evaluation of the mass. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Surgical exploration revealed a large left ovary, a normal-appearing contralateral ovary, and a mass in the fat body, all of which were removed and submitted for histologic examination. The histologic diagnosis was granulosa cell tumor with metastasis to the fat body. The patient died 11 months after evaluation, and disseminated granulosa cell tumor was confirmed at necropsy; histologic examination at that time also identified systemic mastocytosis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Granulosa cell tumors are uncommon in reptiles, and this was the first granulosa cell tumor described antemortem cytologically, histologically, and ultrastructurally in an iguana. Findings in this iguana underscored concerns associated with incomplete oophorectomy of iguanas; cytologic and histopathologic findings were similar to those observed in other domestic animals. Oophorectomy should be considered as an alternative to standard ovariosalpingectomy to avoid potential complications in pet reptiles, and use of microsurgical instruments and vascular clips is advised.

Detection and phylogenetic characterization of a novel herpesvirus from the trachea of two stranded Common Loons (Gavia immer).

Two wild adult Common Loons (Gavia immer) were evaluated after being found stranded in mainland north-central Florida on separate occasions. On the basis of upper airway endoscopic and cytologic findings, we diagnosed severe ulcerative tracheitis antemortem in one of the birds while more subtle lesions were observed in the other. A novel herpesvirus was detected in antemortem tracheal samples using nested consensus PCR amplification of the polymerase gene and sequencing. Despite prolonged intensive medical care, the bird with severe lesions failed to improve and was euthanized 9 days after endoscopy. No viral inclusions were evident histologically in the lesions. However, an undulating tracheal mucosa in a "mountain ridge" pattern, resulting from epithelial regeneration and hyperplasia, was present, as is seen in the late stages of infectious laryngotracheitis in chickens. The second bird recovered and was released. The genetic distance between this and other characterized herpesviruses supports placement of this virus as a novel species, referred to as Gaviid herpesvirus 1 (GavHV1). Phylogenetically, GavHV1 clusters within the genus Iltovirus. The relationship between the observed lesions and the virus remains to be demonstrated.