A thiazepino[4,5-a]benzimidazole derivative hampers the RNA replication of Eurasian serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus.

The stamping-out policy for the control of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in countries that are free from FMD without vaccination has a dramatic socio-economic impact, huge animal welfare issues and may result in the loss of farm animal genetic resources. As an alternative to pre-emptive culling or emergency vaccination we further explore the possibility to use antiviral drugs in the event of an FMD outbreak. In the present study, we tested the in vitro cytotoxicity and anti-FMDV activity of 1,2,4,5-tetrahydro-[1,4]thiazepino[4,5-a]benzimidazole. The molecule was shown to inhibit the replication of reference strains of the Eurasian FMDV serotypes O, A, C and Asia but not the FMDV serotypes from the South African Territories (SAT) neither a related picornavirus, i.e. swine vesicular disease virus. The molecule can be added until 2h post inoculation in a 'single replication cycle experiment' without losing its antiviral activity. The genetic characterization of progressively selected resistant FMD viruses shows that the molecule presumably interacts with the non-structural 2C protein of FMDV. Further studies are required on the use of this molecule in vivo.

Complex Circulation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus in Cattle in Nigeria.

Nigeria is a large densely populated country in West Africa. Most of its livestock is raised in a pastoralist production system with typical long distance migration in search of water and feed. As the demand for animal products largely exceeds the domestic production, large numbers of livestock are imported from neighboring countries without sanitary restrictions. In Nigeria, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotypes O, A, and Southern African Territories (SAT)2 are endemic for a long time. Clinical outbreaks of FMD due to serotype SAT1 are described again since 2015, after an absence of more than 30 years. Historically, outbreaks of FMD due to serotypes O, A, SAT1, and SAT2 were each time associated with trade of cattle entering Nigeria from neighboring countries. In the present study, tissue samples from 27 outbreaks of FMD were collected in Nigerian cattle from 2012 until 2017 in six different States and in the Federal Capital Territory. FMDV was isolated and serotyped and further characterized by VP1 sequencing and phylogenetic analysis to gain more knowledge on FMDV circulation in Nigeria. Half of the outbreaks were characterized as FMDV topotype O/EA-3, while outbreaks with other serotypes and topotypes were-in descending order-less prevalent: A/Africa/G-IV, SAT1/X, SAT2/VII, and O/WA. The high dynamics and omnipresence of FMD in Nigeria were illustrated in Plateau State where FMDV serotypes O, SAT1, and SAT2 were isolated during the course of the study, while at some point in the study, outbreaks due to FMDV serotype A were observed in three remote States. The genetic and phylogenetic analysis suggests a mixed origin of FMD outbreaks. Some outbreaks seem to be caused by sustained local transmission of FMDV strains present in Nigeria since a number of years, while other outbreaks seem to be related to recent incursions with new FMDV strains. The role of African buffaloes in the etiology of FMD in Nigeria is unclear, and sampling of wildlife is needed. The results of the present study suggest that systematic sample collection is essential to understand the complex concomitance of FMDV strains in Nigeria and essential to support the implementation of a vaccination-based control plan.

A canine adenovirus type 2 vaccine vector confers protection against foot-and-mouth disease in guinea pigs.

Vaccination is a key element in the control of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). The majority of the antigenic sites that induce protective immune responses are localized on the FMD virus (FMDV) capsid that is formed by four virus-encoded structural proteins, VP1 to VP4. In the present study, recombinant canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV2)-based FMD vaccines, Cav-P1/3C R° and Cav-VP1 R°, respectively expressing the structural P1 precursor protein along with the non-structural 3C protein or expressing the structural VP1 protein of the FMDV strain O/FRA/1/2001, were evaluated as novel vaccines against FMD. A strong humoral immune response was elicited in guinea pigs (GP) following immunization with Cav-P1/3C R°, while administration of Cav-VP1 R° did not induce a satisfying antibody response in GP or mice. GP were then used as an experimental model for the determination of the protection afforded by the Cav-P1/3C R° vaccine against challenge with the FMDV strain O1 Manisa/Turkey/1969. The Cav-P1/3C R° vaccine protected GP from generalized FMD to a similar extent as a high potency double-oil emulsion O1 Manisa vaccine. The results of the present study show that CAV2-based vector vaccines can express immunogenic FMDV antigens and offer protection against generalized FMD in GP. This suggest that Cav-P1/3C R° FMDV vaccine may protect natural host species from FMD. In combination with an appropriate diagnostic test, the Cav-P1/3C R° FMDV vaccine may also serve as a marker vaccine to differentiate vaccinated from infected animals.

Complete Genome Sequences of Five Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses of Serotype A Isolated from Cattle in Nigeria between 2013 and 2015.

The complete genome sequences of 5 foot-and-mouth disease viruses of serotype A are reported here. These viruses originate from outbreaks in northern Nigeria in 2013 to 2015 and belong to the A/AFRICA/G-IV lineage.

Complete Genome Sequences of Four Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses of Serotype South African Territories 1 (SAT 1), Topotype X, Isolated from Cattle in Nigeria in 2015.

The complete genome sequences of four foot-and-mouth disease viruses of South African territories 1 (SAT 1) serotype are reported. These viruses originate from an outbreak in Nigeria in 2015 and belong to the novel SAT 1 topotype X from the west and central African virus pool.

In vitro surrogate models to aid in the development of antivirals for the containment of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a highly pathogenic member of the genus Aphthovirus (family Picornaviridae) that is only to be manipulated in high-containment facilities, thus complicating research on and discovery of antiviral strategies against the virus. Bovine rhinitis B virus (BRBV) and equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV), phylogenetically most closely related to FMDV, were explored as surrogates for FMDV in antiviral studies. Although no efficient cell culture system has been reported so far for BRBV, we demonstrate that infection of primary bovine kidney cells resulted in an extensive but rather poorly-reproducible induction of cytopathic effect (CPE). Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells on the other hand supported viral replication in the absence of CPE. Antiviral tests were developed for ERAV in Vero A cells employing a viral RNA-reduction assay and CPE-reduction assay; the latter having a Z' factor of 0.83±0.07. The BRBV and ERAV models were next used to assess the anti-aphthovirus activity of two broad-spectrum antiviral agents 2'-C-methylcytidine (2CMC) and ribavirin, as well as of the enterovirus-specific inhibitor enviroxime. The effects of the three compounds in the CPE-reduction (ERAV) and viral RNA-reduction assays (BRBV and ERAV) were comparable. Akin to 2CMC, compound A, a recently-discovered non-nucleoside pan-serotype FMDV inhibitor, also inhibited the replication of both BRBV and ERAV, whereas enviroxime was devoid of activity. The BRBV and ERAV surrogate models reported here can be manipulated in BSL-2 laboratories and may facilitate studies to unravel the mechanism of action of novel FMDV inhibitors.

Efficacy of an AS03A-adjuvanted split H5N1 influenza vaccine against an antigenically distinct low pathogenic H5N1 virus in pigs.

We used the pig model of influenza to examine the efficacy of an AS03(A)-adjuvanted split H5N1 (A/Indonesia/05/2005) vaccine against challenge with a low pathogenic (LP) H5N1 avian influenza (AI) virus (duck/Minnesota/1525/1981) with only 85% amino acid homology in its HA1. Influenza seronegative pigs were vaccinated twice intramuscularly with adjuvanted vaccine at 3 antigen doses, unadjuvanted vaccine or placebo. All pigs were challenged 4 weeks after the second vaccination and euthanized 2 days later. After 2 vaccinations, all pigs in the adjuvanted vaccine groups had high hemagglutination inhibiting (HI) antibody titers to the vaccine strain (160-640), and lower antibody titers to the A/Vietnam/1194/04 H5N1 strain and to 2 LP H5 viruses with 90-91% amino acid homology to the vaccine strain (20-160). Eight out of 12 pigs had HI titers (10-20) to the challenge virus immediately before challenge. Neuraminidase inhibiting antibodies to the challenge virus were detected in most pigs (7/12) and virus neutralizing antibodies in all pigs. There was no antigen-dose dependent effect on the antibody response among the pigs immunized with adjuvanted H5N1 vaccines. After challenge, these pigs showed a complete clinical protection, reduced lung lesions and a significant protection against virus replication in the respiratory tract. Though the challenge virus showed only moderate replication efficiency in pigs, our study suggests that AS03(A)-adjuvanted H5N1 vaccine may confer a broader protection than generally assumed. The pros and cons of the pig as an H5N1 challenge model are also discussed.

Cross-protection between antigenically distinct H1N1 swine influenza viruses from Europe and North America.

BACKGROUND: An avian-like H1N1 swine influenza virus (SIV) is enzootic in swine populations of Western Europe. The virus is antigenically distinct from H1N1 SIVs in North America that have a classical swine virus-lineage H1 hemagglutinin, as does the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus. However, the significance of this antigenic difference for cross-protection among pigs remains unknown. OBJECTIVES: We examined protection against infection with a North American triple reassortant H1N1 SIV [A/swine/Iowa/H04YS2/04 (sw/IA/04)] in pigs infected with a European avian-like SIV [A/swine/Belgium/1/98 (sw/B/98)] 4 weeks earlier. We also examined the genetic relationships and serologic cross-reactivity between both SIVs and with a pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus [A/California/04/09 (Calif/09)]. RESULTS: After intranasal inoculation with sw/IA/04, all previously uninfected control pigs showed nasal virus excretion, high virus titers in the entire respiratory tract at 4 days post-challenge (DPCh) and macroscopic lung lesions. Most pigs previously infected with sw/B/98 tested negative for sw/IA/04 in nasal swabs and respiratory tissues, and none had lung lesions. At challenge, these pigs had low levels of cross-reactive virus neutralizing and neuraminidase inhibiting (NI) antibodies to sw/IA/04, but no hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies. They showed similar antibody profiles when tested against Calif/09, but NI antibody titers were higher against Calif/09 than sw/IA/04, reflecting the higher genetic homology of the sw/B/98 neuraminidase with Calif/09. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that immunity induced by infection with European avian-like H1N1 SIV affords protection for pigs against North American H1N1 SIVs with a classical H1, and they suggest cross-protection against the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus.