Umbrella effect of monitoring protocols for mammals in the Northeast US.

Developing cost-effective monitoring protocols is a priority for wildlife conservation agencies worldwide. In particular, developing protocols that cover a wide range of species is highly desirable. Here we applied the 'umbrella species' concept to the context of ecological monitoring; specifically testing the hypothesis that protocols developed for the American marten would contextually allow detecting occupancy trends for 13 other mammalian species (i.e., an umbrella effect). We conducted a large-scale four-year camera trapping survey across a gradient of forest disturbance in Maine, USA. We sampled 197 sites using a total of 591 cameras and collected over 800,000 photographs to generate detection histories for the most common terrestrial species. By combining multi-season occupancy modelling and power analyses, we estimated the required sampling effort to detect 10%, 25% and 50% declines in the fourteen species. By conducting a spatially explicit comparison of sampling effort, we found evidence that monitoring protocols for American marten would provide an umbrella effect for up to 11 other mammal species. The capacity of the umbrella effect varied among species, with fisher, snowshoe hare, red squirrel, and black bear consistently covered under several scenarios. Our results support the application of the umbrella species concept to monitoring (here defined as 'umbrella monitoring species'), providing empirical evidence for its use by management agencies.

Assessing arrays of multiple trail cameras to detect North American mammals.

Motion triggered camera traps are an increasingly popular tool for wildlife research and can be used to survey for multiple species simultaneously. As with all survey techniques, it is crucial to conduct camera trapping research following study designs that include adequate spatial and temporal replication, and sufficient probability of detecting species presence. The use and configuration of multiple camera traps within a single survey site are understudied considerations that could have a substantial impact on detection probability. Our objective was to test the role that camera number (one, two or three units), and spacing along a linear transect (100 m or 150 m), have on the probability of detecting a species given it is present. From January to March, 2017 we collected data on six mammal species in Maine, USA: coyote (Canis latrans), fisher (Pekania pennanti), American marten (Martes americana), short-tailed weasel (Mustela erminea), snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), and American red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus). We used multi-scale occupancy modelling to compare pooled detection histories of different configuration of five cameras deployed at the same survey site (n = 32), and how the configuration would influence the probability of detecting a species given it was available at the site. Across all six species, we found substantial increases in probability of detection as the number of cameras increased from one to two (22 to 400 percent increase), regardless of the spacing between cameras. For most species the magnitude of the increase was less substantial when adding a third camera (4 to 85 percent increase), with coyote and snowshoe hare showing a pronounced effect. The influence of survey station features also varied by species. We suggest that using pooled data from two or three cameras at a survey site is a cost effective approach to increase detection success over a single camera.