Development of recombinant stable house dust mite allergen Der p 3 molecules for component-resolved diagnosis and specific immunotherapy.

BACKGROUND: The allergen Der p 3 is underrepresented in house dust mite (HDM) extracts probably due to autolysis. Recombinant stable molecule of the allergen is thus needed to improve the diagnosis of allergy and the safety and efficacy of immunotherapy. OBJECTIVE: The current study reports the immunological characterization of two recombinant molecules of the HDM allergen Der p 3 as useful tools for diagnosis and immunotherapy. METHODS: Recombinant mature (rDer p 3) and immature (proDer p 3) Der p 3 and their corresponding S196A mutants were produced in Pichia pastoris and purified. The stability, IgE-binding capacity and allergenicity of the different proteins were analysed and compared with those of the major mite allergen Der p 1 used as a reference. Additionally, the immunogenicity of the different allergens was evaluated in a murine model of Der p 3 sensitization. RESULTS: Compared to the IgE reactivity to recombinant and natural Der p 3 (nDer p 3), the mean IgE binding of patient's sera to rDer p 3-S196A (50%) was higher. The poorly binding to nDer p 3 or rDer p 3 was due to autolysis of the allergen. Contrary to Der p 3, proDer p 3 displayed very weak IgE reactivity, as measured by sandwich ELISA and competitive inhibition, rat basophil leukaemia degranulation and human basophil activation assays. Moreover, proDer p 3 induced a TH 1-biased immune response that prevented allergic response in mice but retained Der p 3-specific T-cell reactivity. CONCLUSION: rDer p 3-S196A should be used for the diagnosis of HDM allergy elicited by Der p 3, and proDer p 3 may represent a hypoallergen of Der p 3.

Secreted subtilisin Sub3 from Microsporum canis is required for adherence to but not for invasion of the epidermis.

BACKGROUND: Microsporum canis is a pathogenic dermatophyte that causes a superficial cutaneous mycosis, mainly in cats and humans. Proteolytic enzymes, including subtilisins, have been postulated to be key factors involved in adherence and invasion of the stratum corneum and keratinized epidermal structures. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the importance of Sub3 as a M. canis virulence factor using a SUB3 RNA-silenced strain. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The stability of a previously constructed RNA-silenced strain IHEM 22957 was tested in three different ways. The involvement of Sub3 in the adherence process was evaluated using a new ex vivo adherence model of M. canis arthroconidia to feline epidermis. In order to investigate the contribution of Sub3 in epidermal invasion, the pathogenicity of the SUB3 silenced strain was compared with that of the control strain in a guinea pig model of experimental M. canis dermatophytosis. RESULTS: The silenced strain was shown to be stable after four in vitro transfers and after the in vivo experimental infection. This strain has dramatic loss of adherence capacity to feline corneocytes when compared with the parental strain. In contrast, no significant differences were observed at any time during the infection between the control strain and the SUB3 silenced strain, indicating that Sub3 secretion is not required for invasion of epidermal structures. CONCLUSIONS: RNA interference is a useful tool to evaluate pathogenic mechanisms of M. canis. For the first time, a role in pathogenicity could be attributed to a protease of a dermatophyte, namely Sub3 from M. canis, which is required for adherence to but not for invasion of the epidermis.

Coordinate regulation of beta-lactamase induction and peptidoglycan composition by the amp operon.

The amp operon, which is located on the Escherichia coli chromosome, modulates the induction of plasmid-borne beta-lactamase genes by extracellular beta-lactam antibiotics. This suggests that the gene products AmpD and AmpE may function in the transduction of external signals. beta-Lactam antibiotics are analogs of cell wall components that can be released during cell wall morphogenesis of enterobacteria. The amp operon was studied to determine its importance in signal transduction during cell wall morphogenesis. The peptidoglycan compositions of amp mutants were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography and fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry. When a chromosomal or plasmid-borne copy of ampD was present, the amount of pentapeptide-containing muropeptides in the cell wall increased upon addition of the cell wall constituent diaminopimelic acid to the growth medium. These results suggest that beta-lactamase induction and modulation of the composition of the cell wall share elements of a regulatory circuit that involves AmpD. Escherichia coli requires AmpD to respond to extracellular signaling amino acids, such as diaminopimelic acid, and this signal transduction system may regulate peptidoglycan composition in response to cell wall turnover products.

First detection of CTX-M-28 in a Tunisian hospital from a cefotaxime-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae strain.

A cefotaxime-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae ML4313 was obtained from a patient from intensive care unit of Military hospital in Tunisia. This strain was resistant to beta-lactams, aminoglycosides, quinolones and phenicols, and tetracyclines. It was identified as producer of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) by double-disk synergy test between amoxicillin-clavulanate and cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime and aztreonam. The ESBL was identified as CTX-M-28 by sequencing of PCR products and by isoelectric focusing. The ESBL resistance was transferred by a 50kb plasmid. CTX-M-28 is closely related to CTX-M-15. This is the first description of this enzyme in Tunisia.

Der p 5 allergen from house dust mite: first epitope mapping of rabbit IgG blocking antibodies.

Der p 5 is one of the important house dust mite allergens in Algeria; this allergen is frequently recognized by patients with allergic asthma. However, there is no information on its IgG-binding epitopes. In the present study, rabbits were immunized with recombinant Der p 5 allergen, and serum samples were obtained. Recognition of linear IgG epitopes of Der p 5 was determined using synthesized peptides derived from the allergen sequence. The results showed that serum from immunized rabbits recognized three linear epitopes from Der p 5 (28EDKKHDYQNEFDFLLMERIHEQIK43), (37IHEQIKKGELALFYLQEQ55) and (92LMQRKDLDIFEQYNLEMAKKS112). More interestingly, we observed that the 92L-S112 amino acid sequence is well recognized by both IgE and IgG antibodies. Der p 5 stimulates the synthesis of specific IgG antibodies which recognize common but also novel epitopes compared to IgE antibody binding. Indeed, the potential to induce IgG antibodies can be used to inhibit human IgE binding to allergens which may be part of the mechanism of action of specific immunotherapy.

Rapid and easy development of versatile tools to study protein/ligand interactions.

The system described here allows the expression of protein fragments into a solvent-exposed loop of a carrier protein, the beta-lactamase BlaP. When using Escherichia coli constitutive expression vectors, a positive selection of antibioresistant bacteria expressing functional hybrid beta-lactamases is achieved in the presence of beta-lactams making further screening of correctly folded and secreted hybrid beta-lactamases easier. Protease-specific recognition sites have been engineered on both sides of the beta-lactamase permissive loop in order to cleave off the exogenous protein fragment from the carrier protein by an original two-step procedure. According to our data, this approach constitutes a suitable alternative for production of difficult to express protein domains. This work demonstrates that the use of BlaP as a carrier protein does not alter the biochemical activity and the native disulphide bridge formation of the inserted chitin binding domain of the human macrophage chitotriosidase. We also report that the beta-lactamase activity of the hybrid protein can be used to monitor interactions between the inserted protein fragments and its ligands and to screen neutralizing molecules.

Combinatorial Design of a Nanobody that Specifically Targets Structured RNAs.

Recent advances in transcriptome sequencing and analysis have revealed the complexity of the human genome. The majority (≈ 98%) of cellular transcripts is not translated into proteins and represents a vast, unchartered world of functional non-coding RNAs. Most of them adopt a well-defined three-dimensional structure to achieve their biological functions. However, only very few RNA structures are currently available which reflects the challenges associated with RNA crystallization. Nevertheless, these structures would represent a critical step in understanding functions of non-coding RNAs and their molecular mechanisms in the cell. The overall goal of this study is to develop an innovative and versatile tool to facilitate the functional study and crystallization of structured RNAs (stRNAs). In this work, we have engineered an antibody fragment from camelid heavy-chain antibody (nanobody) able to specifically bind with low nanomolar affinity to stRNA, while no binding could be detected for single-stranded DNA/RNA, double-stranded DNA/RNA or a negatively charged protein. However, this nanobody recognizes different and non-related stRNAs, this observation suggests that it binds to an epitope shared by these stRNAs. Finally, our data also show that the binding of the nanobody does not alter the secondary structure content of the stRNA as well as its unfolding/refolding processes during heat treatment. This work constitutes a successful proof of concept demonstrating that nanobodies can be engineered to recognize RNA-related epitopes.

The expression of Clostridium perfringens consensus beta2 toxin is associated with bovine enterotoxaemia syndrome.

Clostridium perfringens has been implicated in a broad array of enteric infections including the fatal haemorrhagic enteritis/enterotoxaemia syndrome in cattle. The beta2 toxin (CPB2), encoded by cpb2, is suspected to be implicated in this syndrome. However, among C. perfringens isolates from cattle suspected of clostridial disease, an atypical allele was recently found to predominate at the cpb2 locus and atypical corresponding CPB2 proteins were shown to be poorly expressed, thus arguing against a biologically significant role of the beta2 toxin in clostridial diseases in cattle. This study compared genotype and phenotype of the beta2 toxin between C. perfringens isolates from a group of healthy calves (n=14, 87 isolates) and from a group of enterotoxaemic calves (n=8, 41 isolates). PCR results revealed the exclusive presence of the typical "consensus"cpb2 in the enterotoxaemic group. Western blot analysis demonstrated that the typical variant of CPB2 was often expressed in isolates from enterotoxaemic calves (43.9%) and infrequently in isolates from healthy cattle (6.9%). These data suggest that the typical variant of the CPB2 toxin may play a role in the pathogenesis of cattle enterotoxaemia.

Three-dimensional structure of FEZ-1, a monomeric subclass B3 metallo-beta-lactamase from Fluoribacter gormanii, in native form and in complex with D-captopril.

The beta-lactamases are involved in bacterial resistance to penicillin and related compounds. Members of the metallo-enzyme class are now found in many pathogenic bacteria and are thus becoming of major clinical importance. The structures of the Zn-beta-lactamase from Fluoribacter gormanii (FEZ-1) in the native and in the complex form are reported here. FEZ-1 is a monomeric enzyme, which possesses two zinc-binding sites. These structures are discussed in comparison with those of the tetrameric L1 enzyme produced by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. From this analysis, amino acids involved in the oligomerization of L1 are clearly identified. Despite the similarity in fold, the active site of FEZ-1 was found to be significantly different. Two residues, which were previously implicated in function, are not present in L1 or in FEZ-1. The broad-spectrum substrate profile of Zn-beta-lactamases arises from the rather wide active-site cleft, where various beta-lactam compounds can be accommodated.

Enzymatic functionalization of a nanobody using protein insertion technology.

Antibody-based products constitute one of the most attractive biological molecules for diagnostic, medical imagery and therapeutic purposes with very few side effects. Their development has become a major priority of biotech and pharmaceutical industries. Recently, a growing number of modified antibody-based products have emerged including fragments, multi-specific and conjugate antibodies. In this study, using protein engineering, we have functionalized the anti-hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL) camelid VHH antibody fragment (cAb-Lys3), by insertion into a solvent-exposed loop of the Bacillus licheniformis ß-lactamase BlaP. We showed that the generated hybrid protein conserved its enzymatic activity while the displayed nanobody retains its ability to inhibit HEWL with a nanomolar affinity range. Then, we successfully implemented the functionalized cAb-Lys3 in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, potentiometric biosensor and drug screening assays. The hybrid protein was also expressed on the surface of phage particles and, in this context, was able to interact specifically with HEWL while the ß-lactamase activity was used to monitor phage interactions. Finally, using thrombin-cleavage sites surrounding the permissive insertion site in the ß-lactamase, we reported an expression system in which the nanobody can be easily separated from its carrier protein. Altogether, our study shows that insertion into the BlaP ß-lactamase constitutes a suitable technology to functionalize nanobodies and allows the creation of versatile tools that can be used in innovative biotechnological assays.

Structural effects of the active site mutation cysteine to serine in Bacillus cereus zinc-beta-lactamase.

Beta-lactamases are involved in bacterial resistance. Members of the metallo-enzyme class are now found in many pathogenic bacteria and are becoming thus of major clinical importance. Despite the availability of Zn-beta-lactamase X-ray structures their mechanism of action is still unclear. One puzzling observation is the presence of one or two zincs in the active site. To aid in assessing the role of zinc content in beta-lactam hydrolysis, the replacement by Ser of the zinc-liganding residue Cys168 in the Zn-beta-lactamase from Bacillus cereus strain 569/H/9 was carried out: the mutant enzyme (C168S) is inactive in the mono-Zn form, but active in the di-Zn form. The structure of the mono-Zn form of the C168S mutant has been determined at 1.85 A resolution. Ser168 occupies the same position as Cys168 in the wild-type enzyme. The protein residues mostly affected by the mutation are Asp90-Arg91 and His210. A critical factor for the activity of the mono-Zn species is the distance between Asp90 and the Zn ion, which is controlled by Arg91: a slight movement of Asp90 impairs catalysis. The evolution of a large superfamily including Zn-beta-lactamases suggests that they may not all share the same mechanism.

Contribution of beta-lactamase production to the resistance of mycobacteria to beta-lactam antibiotics.

Mycobacterium fallax (M. fallax) is naturally sensitive to many beta-lactam antibiotics (MIC < 2 microg/ml) and devoid of beta-lactamase activity. In this paper, we show that the production of the beta-lactamase of Mycobacterium fortuitum by M. fallax significantly increased the MIC values for good substrates of the enzyme, whereas the potency of poor substrates or transient inactivators was not modified. The rates of diffusion of beta-lactams through the mycolic acid layer were low, but for all studied compounds the half-equilibration times were such that they would only marginally affect the MIC values in the absence of beta-lactamase production. These results emphasize the importance of enzymatic degradation as a major factor in the resistance of mycobacteria to penicillins.

Mono- and binuclear Zn-beta-lactamase from Bacteroides fragilis: catalytic and structural roles of the zinc ions.

The Bacteroides fragilis Zn-beta-lactamase is active with a mono- and a binuclear zinc site. The apoenzyme produced by removal of both Zn ions does not recover full activity upon readdition of Zn2+ in contrast to an active mono-Zn form prepared at pH 6.0. Differences in k(cat) values observed are substrate-dependent implying distinct mechanisms for the mono- and binuclear species. The substrate profile of a Zn,Cd hybrid obtained by selective exchange of one zinc ion is different from that of the Zn2 enzyme with a remarkable 15-fold increased activity with cefoxitin as substrate.

Interaction between class B beta-lactamases and suicide substrates of active-site serine beta-lactamases.

The most widely used inactivators of active-site serine beta-lactamases behave as substrates of four class B metallo-beta-lactamases, but the efficiency of the catalytic process can vary by several orders of magnitude. A comparison of the kinetic parameters for the alpha and beta isomers of 6-iodopenicillanic acid shows that there is no general preference for the alpha isomer and that the efficient hydrolysis of imipenem by these enzymes must rest on other factors.

Kinetic and spectroscopic characterization of native and metal-substituted beta-lactamase from Aeromonas hydrophila AE036.

Two metal ion binding sites are conserved in metallo-beta-lactamase from Aeromonas hydrophila. The ligands of a first zinc ion bound with picomolar dissociation constant were identified by EXAFS spectroscopy as one Cys, two His and one additional N/O donor. Sulfur-to-metal charge transfer bands are observed for all mono- and di-metal species substituted with Cu(II) or Co(II) due to ligation of the single conserved cysteine residue. Binding of a second metal ion results in non-competitive inhibition which might be explained by an alternative kinetic mechanism. A possible partition of metal ions between the two binding sites is discussed.

Overproduction and purification of the Aeromonas hydrophila CphA metallo-beta-lactamase expressed in Escherichia coli.

The Aeromonas hydrophila CphA metallo-beta-lactamase was overexpressed in a soluble secreted form in Escherichia coli using a T7 RNA polymerase-based expression system, and a simple protocol based on a single cation-exchange chromatographic step was developed, which is suitable for rapid purification of the overexpressed enzyme from E. coli lysates. A yield of up to 30 micrograms of purified enzyme per milliliter of culture was obtained. The purified enzyme preparation showed properties identical to those previously reported in the literature.

Purification and properties of the Mycobacterium smegmatis mc(2)155 beta-lactamase.

The beta-lactamase of Mycobacterium smegmatis mc(2)155 has been purified to protein homogeneity. Its N-terminal sequence and catalytic properties are similar to those of the beta-lactamase produced by Mycobacterium fortuitum D316 and establish this new enzyme as a member of molecular class A.

DD-peptidases and beta-lactamases: catalytic mechanisms and specificities.

DD-peptidases and beta-lactamases share several common properties, including the formation of an acylenzyme intermediate in their catalytic pathways. In their interactions with beta-lactam antibiotics, the stability of this intermediate is much higher with the peptidases than with the beta-lactamases. The structural factors responsible for this difference have not been identified. The evolution of beta-lactamases is taking place before our eyes, since mutants are constantly selected which can hydrolyze the molecules newly introduced as "beta-lactamase resistant" in the chemotherapeutic arsenal.

Inhibition of the keratinolytic subtilisin protease Sub3 from Microsporum canis by its propeptide (proSub3) and evaluation of the capacity of proSub3 to inhibit fungal adherence to feline epidermis.

Microsporum canis is a pathogenic fungus that causes a superficial cutaneous infection called dermatophytosis, mainly in cats, dogs and humans. Proteolytic enzymes have been postulated to be key factors involved in the invasion of the stratum corneum and keratinized epidermal structures. Among these proteases, the secreted subtilisin protease Sub3 was found to be required for adherence of M. canis arthroconidia to feline epidermis. This protease is synthetized as a preproenzyme consisting of a signal peptide followed by the propeptide and the protease domain. In order to assess whether the enzymatic activity of Sub3 could be responsible for the role of the protease in the adherence process, we expressed and characterized the propeptide of Sub3 and demonstrated that this propeptide is a strong inhibitor of its mature enzyme. This propeptide acts as a noncompetitive inhibitor with dissociation constants, K(I) and [Formula: see text] of 170 and 130 nM respectively. When tested for its capacity to inhibit adherence of M. canis to feline epidermis using an ex vivo adherence model made of feline epidermis, the propeptide does not prevent adherence of M. canis arthroconidia because it loses its capacity to inhibit rSub3 following a direct contact with living arthroconidia, presumably through inactivation by fungal membrane-bound proteases.