A "tailored" interventional and surgical management for moderate to critical acute pancreatitis in late phase: a cohort study.

PURPOSE: Several interventional procedures are available to treat moderate-to-critical acute pancreatitis (AP) in its late phase. The ongoing debate on these options, together with the scarcity of reported quality of life (QoL) information in the Literature, prompted us to conduct a review of our experience. METHODS: All the patients treated at our referral Center for moderate-to-critical AP according to Determinant-Based Classification (DBC) were retrospectively reviewed. Patients treated conservatively or operated within 4 weeks were excluded. The included patients were managed following a "tailored" interventional-surgical approach, which did not exclude the possibility to skip one or more steps of the classic "step-up" approach, based on the patient's clinical course, and divided into four groups, according to the first procedure performed: percutaneous drainage (PD), endoscopic approach (END), internal derivation (INT), and necrosectomy (NE). In-hospital and mid-term follow-up variables were analyzed. RESULTS: The study sample consisted in 47 patients: 11 patients were treated by PD, 11 by END, 13 by INT, and 12 by NE. A significant distribution of the DBC severity (p = 0.029) was registered among the four groups. Moreover, the NE group had statistically significant reduced SF-36 scores in the domain of social functioning at 3 months (p = 0.011), at 1 year (p = 0.002), and at 2 years (p = 0.001); role limitations due to physical health at 6 months (p = 0.027); and role limitations due to emotional problems at 1 year (p = 0.020). CONCLUSIONS: In the "late phase" of moderate to critical AP requiring an invasive management, PD, END, INT, and NE are all effective options, depending on patents' status and necrosis location. A "tailored" interventional-surgical management could be pursued, but up-front more invasive approaches are at higher risk of worse QoL. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The manuscript was registered at clinicaltrials.gov in 04/2021 and identified with NCT04870268.

The complex interplay between gastrointestinal and psychiatric symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome: A longitudinal assessment.

AIMS: The aims of this study were to better define the relationship between irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and psychiatric disorders and to examine the efficacy of paroxetine in the treatment of IBS patients. METHODS: One hundred fifty subjects with diagnosis of IBS (Roma III criteria) and relative sub-classification (constipated, diarrhea, and mixed) were assessed for psychopathological features and gastrointestinal symptoms using IBS Symptom Severity Score and were consecutively enrolled. Fifty patients assumed paroxetine for 16 weeks and were longitudinally evaluated. RESULTS: The entire sample had a moderate/severe gastrointestinal symptomatology (IBS-SSS 285.1 ± 98.6). The IBS subtypes were diarrhea (47.3%), constipated (32%), and mixed (20.7%). Panic disorder was found in 17.4% and major depressive episode in 14.7%. More than 50% of the patients showed "psychopathological features." This group showed more severe gastrointestinal symptoms and worse quality of life than the group without any psychiatric comorbidity (44%). Psychiatric patients also showed a significant impairment of physical state, subjective feeling of well-being, and leisure activities when compared with no psychiatric patients. When the IBS-SSS > 300 group was subgrouped in psychiatric (67.2%) and no psychiatric (32.8%), we found significant differences in all clinician-administered and self-reported scales with more severe psychopathological features in psychiatric group (P < 0.01). Among the patients treated with paroxetine, 34 (68%) completed the longitudinal evaluation showing a significant improvement of both psychiatric and gastrointestinal symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms a high presence of psychiatric comorbidities, emphasizing the need for psychiatric screening in all patients with IBS; moreover, the longitudinal evaluation of patients treated with paroxetine showed a significant improvement of both psychiatric and gastrointestinal symptoms.

Fecal Clostridiales distribution and short-chain fatty acids reflect bowel habits in irritable bowel syndrome.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), a common functional gastrointestinal disorder, is classified according to bowel habits as IBS with constipation (IBS-C), with diarrhea (IBS-D), with alternating constipation and diarrhea (IBS-M), and unsubtyped (IBS-U). The mechanisms leading to the different IBS forms are mostly unknown. This study aims to evaluate whether specific fecal bacterial taxa and/or short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) can be used to distinguish IBS subtypes and are relevant for explaining the clinical differences between IBS subcategories. We characterized five fecal samples collected at 4-weeks intervals from 40 IBS patients by 16S rRNA gene profiling and SCFA quantification. Finally, we investigated the potential correlations in IBS subtypes between the fecal microbial signatures and host physiological and clinical parameters. We found significant differences in the distribution of Clostridiales OTUs among IBS subtypes and reduced levels of SCFAs in IBS-C compared to IBS-U and IBS-D patients. Correlation analyses showed that the diverse representation of Clostridiales OTUs between IBS subtypes was associated with altered levels of SCFAs; furthermore, the same OTUs and SCFAs were associated with the fecal cytokine levels and stool consistency. Our results suggest that intestinal Clostridiales and SCFAs might serve as potential mechanistic biomarkers of IBS subtypes and represent therapeutic targets.

Exploring the genetics of irritable bowel syndrome: a GWA study in the general population and replication in multinational case-control cohorts.

OBJECTIVE: IBS shows genetic predisposition, but adequately powered gene-hunting efforts have been scarce so far. We sought to identify true IBS genetic risk factors by means of genome-wide association (GWA) and independent replication studies. DESIGN: We conducted a GWA study (GWAS) of IBS in a general population sample of 11,326 Swedish twins. IBS cases (N=534) and asymptomatic controls (N=4932) were identified based on questionnaire data. Suggestive association signals were followed-up in 3511 individuals from six case-control cohorts. We sought genotype-gene expression correlations through single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-expression quantitative trait loci interactions testing, and performed in silico prediction of gene function. We compared candidate gene expression by real-time qPCR in rectal mucosal biopsies of patients with IBS and controls. RESULTS: One locus at 7p22.1, which includes the genes KDELR2 (KDEL endoplasmic reticulum protein retention receptor 2) and GRID2IP (glutamate receptor, ionotropic, delta 2 (Grid2) interacting protein), showed consistent IBS risk effects in the index GWAS and all replication cohorts and reached p=9.31×10(-6) in a meta-analysis of all datasets. Several SNPs in this region are associated with cis effects on KDELR2 expression, and a trend for increased mucosal KDLER2 mRNA expression was observed in IBS cases compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that general population-based studies combined with analyses of patient cohorts provide good opportunities for gene discovery in IBS. The 7p22.1 and other risk signals detected in this study constitute a good starting platform for hypothesis testing in future functional investigations.

Suspected stenosis in Caroli syndrome: when cholangioscopy can be the game changer.

Video 1Cholangioscopy performed during ERCP.

Neuroendocrine markers and psychological features in patients with irritable bowel syndrome.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The key role of the brain-gut axis in the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) has been recognized. The aim of this study was to assess the possible association between IBS, neuroendocrine markers, and psychological features. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-five consecutive IBS patients and 105 healthy subjects were enrolled. Plasma serotonin, plasma and urinary cortisol, and plasma neuropeptide Y levels were evaluated. All patients were given a questionnaire to assess IBS symptom severity. In 66 patients, a psychodiagnostic assessment was carried out. RESULTS: A high incidence of specific psychological features, including state anxiety (69.69 %), trait anxiety (54.54 %), obsessions and compulsions (28.78 %), was observed in IBS patients. A positive correlation between neuropeptide Y and state anxiety (r = 0.287, p = 0.024) and simulation/social ingenuity (r = 0.269, p = 0.039) was found in these patients. In diarrhea-predominant IBS, plasma cortisol was linearly related to plasma serotonin (r = 0.5663, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In IBS patients, a significant correlation was found between specific psychological features and neuroendocrine markers, especially plasma cortisol and neuropeptide Y; in diarrhea-predominant IBS, a correlation between plasma cortisol and serotonin was found, although it needs to be confirmed in more extensive cohorts.

Role of abdominal ultrasound for the surveillance follow-up of pancreatic cystic neoplasms: a cost-effective safe alternative to the routine use of magnetic resonance imaging.

BACKGROUND: Patients with pancreatic cystic neoplasms (PCN), without surgical indication at the time of diagnosis according to current guidelines, require lifetime image-based surveillance follow-up. In these patients, the current European evidenced-based guidelines advise magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning every 6 mo in the first year, then annually for the next five years, without reference to any role for trans-abdominal ultrasound (US). In this study, we report on our clinical experience of a follow-up strategy of image-based surveillance with US, and restricted use of MRI every two years and for urgent evaluation whenever suspicious changes are detected by US. AIM: To report the results and cost-efficacy of a US-based surveillance follow-up for known PCNs, with restricted use of MRI. METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated the records of all the patients treated in our institution with non-surgical PCN who received follow-up abdominal US and restricted MRI from the time of diagnosis, between January 2012 and January 2017. After US diagnosis and MRI confirmation, all patients underwent US surveillance every 6 mo for the first year, and then annually. A MRI scan was routinely performed every 2 years, or at any stage for all suspicious US findings. In this communication, we reported the clinical results of this alternative follow-up, and the results of a comparative cost-analysis between our surveillance protocol (abdominal US and restricted MRI) and the same patient cohort that has been followed-up in strict accordance with the European guidelines recommended for an exclusive MRI-based surveillance protocol. RESULTS: In the 5-year period, 200 patients entered the prescribed US-restricted MRI surveillance follow-up. Mean follow-up period was 25.1 ± 18.2 mo. Surgery was required in two patients (1%) because of the appearance of suspicious features at imaging (with complete concordance between the US scan and the on-demand MRI). During the follow-up, US revealed changes in PCN appearance in 28 patients (14%). These comprised main pancreatic duct dilatation (n = 1), increased size of the main cyst (n = 14) and increased number of PNC (n = 13). In all of these patients, MRI confirmed US findings, without adding more information. The bi-annual MRI identified evolution of the lesions not identified by US in only 11 patients with intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (5.5%), largely consisting of an increased number of very small PCN (P = 0.14). The overall mean cost of surveillance, based on a theoretical use of the European evidenced-based exclusive MRI surveillance in the same group of patients, would have been 1158.9 ± 798.6 € per patient, in contrast with a significantly lower cost of 366.4 ± 348.7 € (P < 0.0001) incurred by the US-restricted MRI surveillance used at our institution. CONCLUSION: In patients with non-surgical PCN at the time of diagnosis, US surveillance could be a safe complementary approach to MRI, delaying and reducing the numbers of second level examinations and therefore reducing the costs.

Effect of Lactobacillus paracasei CNCM I-1572 on symptoms, gut microbiota, short chain fatty acids, and immune activation in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: A pilot randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests a role of intestinal microbiota-host interactions in the pathophysiology and symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). OBJECTIVE: The objective of this article is to assess the effects of Lactobacillus paracasei CNCM I-1572 on clinical and gut microbiota-related factors in IBS. METHODS: We conducted a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, cross-over, 18-week, placebo-controlled, pilot trial assessing the effect of Lactobacillus paracasei CNCM I-1572 on symptoms, gut microbiota composition, fecal short chain fatty acid (SCFA), immunoglobulin A, and cytokines in IBS. The intestinal microbial ecosystem was characterized by 16S rRNA gene profiling. RESULTS: Forty IBS patients were enrolled from five Italian centers. Lactobacillus paracasei CNCM I-1572 did not significantly improve IBS symptoms, including primary efficacy variables worst abdominal pain/discomfort and IBS degree of relief. Interestingly, Lactobacillus paracasei CNCM I-1572 induced a significant reduction in genus Ruminococcus, dominated by taxa related to Ruminococcus bromii and Ruminococcus callidus, a significant increase in the SCFAs acetate and butyrate, and a significant reduction in the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-15. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study shows that Lactobacillus paracasei CNCM I-1572 is able to modulate gut microbiota structure/function and reduce immune activation in IBS. As no statistically significant effect on IBS-symptoms was found, further studies are necessary to determine the role of this probiotic in IBS. The study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov registry under identifier NCT02371499.

Subthreshold Psychiatric Psychopathology in Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders: Can It Be the Bridge between Gastroenterology and Psychiatry?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGDs) are multifactorial disorders of the gut-brain interaction. This study investigated the prevalence of Axis I and spectrum disorders in patients with FGD and established the link between FGDs and psychopathological dimensions. METHODS: A total of 135 consecutive patients with FGD were enrolled. The symptoms' severity was evaluated using questionnaires, while the psychiatric evaluation by clinical interviews established the presence/absence of mental (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-4th edition, Axis I Diagnosis) or spectrum disorders. RESULTS: Of the 135 patients, 42 (32.3%) had functional dyspepsia, 52 (40.0%) had irritable bowel syndrome, 21 (16.2%) had functional bloating, and 20 (15.4%) had functional constipation. At least one psychiatric disorder was present in 46.9% of the patients, while a suprathreshold panic spectrum was present in 26.2%. Functional constipation was associated with depressive disorders (p < 0.05), while functional dyspepsia was related to the current major depressive episode (p < 0.05). Obsessive-compulsive spectrum was correlated with the presence of functional constipation and irritable bowel syndrome (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The high prevalence of subthreshold psychiatric symptomatology in patients with FGD, which is likely to influence the expression of gastrointestinal symptoms, suggested the usefulness of psychological evaluation in patients with FGDs.

Neuroendocrine Dysregulation in Irritable Bowel Syndrome Patients: A Pilot Study.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a multifactorial disorder, involving dysregulation of brain-gut axis. Our aim was to evaluate the neuroendocrine activity in IBS. METHODS: Thirty IBS and 30 healthy volunteers were enrolled. Psychological symptoms were evaluated by questionnaires. Urinary 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, plasma serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), endothelin, and neuropeptide Y (NPY), and plasma and urinary cortisol levels were evaluated. Fourteen IBS subjects underwent microneurography to obtain multiunit recordings of efferent postganglionic muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA). RESULTS: Prevalent psychological symptoms in IBS were maladjustment (60%), trait (40%) and state (17%) anxiety, obsessive compulsive-disorders (23%), and depressive symptoms (23%). IBS showed increased NPY (31.9 [43.7] vs 14.8 [18.1] pmol/L, P = 0.006), 5-HT (214.9 [182.6] vs 141.0 [45.5] pg/mL, P = 0.010), and endothelin [1.1 [1.4] vs 2.1 [8.1] pg/mL, P = 0.054], compared to healthy volunteers. Moreover, plasma NPY, endothelin, cortisol and 5-HT, and urinary 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid were associated with some psychological disorders (P ≤ 0.05). Despite a similar resting MSNA, after cold pressor test, IBS showed a blunted increase in MSNA burst frequency (+4.1 vs +7.8 bursts/min, P = 0.048; +30.1% vs +78.1%, P = 0.023). Baseline MSNA tended to be associated with urinary cortisol (ρ = 0.557, P = 0.059). Moreover, changes in heart rate after mental stress were associated with urinary cortisol (ρ = 0.682, P = 0.021) and changes in MSNA after mental stress were associated with plasma cortisol (ρ = 0.671, P = 0.024)." CONCLUSION: Higher concentrations of endothelin, NPY, and 5-HT were found to be associated with some psychological disorders in IBS patients together with an altered cardiovascular autonomic reactivity to acute stressors compared to healthy volunteers.

Velusetrag for the treatment of chronic constipation.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic constipation is a frequent complaint in daily clinical practice. Notwithstanding the availability of numerous drugs, its treatment it is still unsatisfactory. However, new emerging treatments are in the pipeline and some drugs seem to be promising; among these velusetrag, a selective 5-HT4 receptors agonist. AREAS COVERED: An in depth Medline literature search was performed concerning topics related to the treatment of constipated patients with velusetrag. In addition, abstracts concerning the topic were searched by hand in our libraries. EXPERT OPINION: After analyzing the available data, the authors feel that velusetrag may likely improve symptoms and the quality of life of chronically constipated subjects. However, additional data is needed to fully understand the safety and efficacy of velusetrag, particularly in patients on long-term therapy. Thanks to the once-daily dosing and the pharmacologic properties, velusetrag could be used as a single agent or in association with other drugs. In the future, this drug holds the potential to be an effective adjunct to the therapeutic armamentarium for chronic constipation.

Prucalopride succinate for the treatment of constipation: an update.

Constipation is a disorder frequently complained about by patients in daily clinical practice. However, to date, its treatment is still commonly unsatisfactory, especially concerning patients' quality of life, when using conventional measures. Prucalopride, a selective 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 4 agonist, was introduced to the market in 2009 and has been commercially available in Europe since 2010. The main effect of prucalopride is to stimulate colonic motility, which explains its efficacy to treat constipated patients unresponsive to other regimens. Literature search was carried out to look for effects of prucalopride on constipated patients. Several papers were found demonstrating that prucalopride is effective in treatment of constipated patients. Due to its few side effects, the lack of cardiovascular effects and interactions with other drugs, prucalopride may be safely used in elderly people as well.

Irritable bowel syndrome and chronic constipation: Fact and fiction.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and functional constipation (FC) are the most common functional gastrointestinal disorders. According to the Rome III Criteria these two disorders should be theoretically separated mainly by the presence of abdominal pain or discomfort relieved by defecation (typical of IBS) and they should be mutually exclusive. However, many gastroenterologists have serious doubts as regards a clear separation. Both IBS-C and FC, often associated with many other functional digestive and non digestive disorders, are responsible for a low quality of life. The impact of the media on patients' perception of these topics is sometimes disruptive, often suggesting a distorted view of pathophysiology, diagnosis and therapy. These messages frequently overlap with previous subjective opinions and are further processed on the basis of the different culture and the previous experience of the constipated patients, often producing odd, useless or even dangerous behaviors. The aim of this review was to analyze the most common patients' beliefs about IBS-C and CC, helping physicians to understand where they should focus their attention when communicating with patients, detecting false opinions and misconceptions and correcting them on the basis of scientific evidence.

Irritable bowel syndrome: a disease still searching for pathogenesis, diagnosis and therapy.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is the most frequently diagnosed functional gastrointestinal disorder in primary and secondary care. It is characterised by abdominal discomfort, pain and changes in bowel habits that can have a serious impact on the patient's quality of life. The pathophysiology of IBS is not yet completely clear. Genetic, immune, environmental, inflammatory, neurological and psychological factors, in addition to visceral hypersensitivity, can all play an important role, one that most likely involves the complex interactions between the gut and the brain (gut-brain axis). The diagnosis of IBS can only be made on the basis of the symptoms of the Rome III criteria. Because the probability of organic disease in patients fulfilling the IBS criteria is very low, a careful medical history is critical and should pay particular attention to the possible comorbidities. Nevertheless, the severity of the patient's symptoms or concerns sometimes compels the physician to perform useless and/or expensive diagnostic tests, transforming IBS into a diagnosis of exclusion. The presence of alarming symptoms (fever, weight loss, rectal bleeding, significant changes in blood chemistry), the presence of palpable abdominal masses, any recent onset of symptoms in patient aged over 50 years, the presence of symptoms at night, and a familial history of celiac disease, colorectal cancer and/or inflammatory bowel diseases all warrant investigation. Treatment strategies are based on the nature and severity of the symptoms, the degree of functional impairment of the bowel habits, and the presence of psychosocial disorders. This review examines and discusses the pathophysiological aspects and the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches available for patients with symptoms possibly related to IBS, pointing out controversial issues and the strengths and weaknesses of the current knowledge.

Influence of the serotonin transporter 5HTTLPR polymorphism on symptom severity in irritable bowel syndrome.

5HTTLPR polymorphism of serotonin transporter yields short (S) and long (L) alleles. SS and LS genotypes are associated with reduced expression of serotonin transporter. This cross-sectional study investigated the association of 5HTTLPR with symptom severity of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Patients with IBS (Rome III) and healthy controls were included. Genomic DNA was extracted from saliva, and 5HTTLPR alleles were assessed by polymerase chain reaction. IBS symptom severity was evaluated by means of IBS-SSS questionnaire. Two hundreds and four IBS patients (159 females; mean age: 39.6±12.3 years; 106 with constipation: C-IBS; 98 with diarrhea: D-IBS) and 200 healthy controls (154 females; mean age: 40.4±15.8 years) were enrolled. The overall IBS-SSS value was higher in LS/SS than LL patients (319.0±71.5 versus 283.8±62.3; P = 0.0006). LS/SS patients had also higher values of abdominal pain (59.7±21.0 versus 51.0±18.8; P = 0.020) and bowel dissatisfaction (80.1±23.9 versus 70.5±22.8; P = 0.035). The overall IBS-SSS values in C-IBS and D-IBS patients were 317.2±68.3 and 296.1±71.4, respectively (P = 0.192), with significantly higher values for abdominal distension (65.0±24.4 versus 51.4±24.8; P = 0.0006), but not for bowel dissatisfaction (80.5±21.7 versus 72.9±25.7; P = 0.138). Frequencies of 5HTTLPR genotypes did not differ significantly when comparing IBS patients (overall or upon stratification in C-IBS and D-IBS) with healthy controls. In conclusion, the LS and SS genotypes are significantly correlated with IBS symptom severity, although their possible direct causal role remains to be proven. In addition, the present findings do not support an association of 5HTTLPR with IBS or its clinical presentation in terms of bowel habit predominance.

Consensus statement AIGO/SICCR: diagnosis and treatment of chronic constipation and obstructed defecation (part I: diagnosis).

Chronic constipation is a common and extremely troublesome disorder that significantly reduces the quality of life, and this fact is consistent with the high rate at which health care is sought for this condition. The aim of this project was to develop a consensus for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic constipation and obstructed defecation. The commission presents its results in a "Question-Answer" format, including a set of graded recommendations based on a systematic review of the literature and evidence-based medicine. This section represents the consensus for the diagnosis. The history includes information relating to the onset and duration of symptoms and may reveal secondary causes of constipation. The presence of alarm symptoms and risk factors requires investigation. The physical examination should assess the presence of lesions in the anal and perianal region. The evidence does not support the routine use of blood testing and colonoscopy or barium enema for constipation. Various scoring systems are available to quantify the severity of constipation; the Constipation Severity Instrument for constipation and the obstructed defecation syndrome score for obstructed defecation are the most reliable. The Constipation-Related Quality of Life is an excellent tool for evaluating the patient's quality of life. No single test provides a pathophysiological basis for constipation. Colonic transit and anorectal manometry define the pathophysiologic subtypes. Balloon expulsion is a simple screening test for defecatory disorders, but it does not define the mechanisms. Defecography detects structural abnormalities and assesses functional parameters. Magnetic resonance imaging and/or pelvic floor sonography can further complement defecography by providing information on the movement of the pelvic floor and the organs that it supports. All these investigations are indicated to differentiate between slow transit constipation and obstructed defecation because the treatments differ between these conditions.

Consensus statement AIGO/SICCR diagnosis and treatment of chronic constipation and obstructed defecation (part II: treatment).

The second part of the Consensus Statement of the Italian Association of Hospital Gastroenterologists and Italian Society of Colo-Rectal Surgery reports on the treatment of chronic constipation and obstructed defecation. There is no evidence that increasing fluid intake and physical activity can relieve the symptoms of chronic constipation. Patients with normal-transit constipation should increase their fibre intake through their diet or with commercial fibre. Osmotic laxatives may be effective in patients who do not respond to fibre supplements. Stimulant laxatives should be reserved for patients who do not respond to osmotic laxatives. Controlled trials have shown that serotoninergic enterokinetic agents, such as prucalopride, and prosecretory agents, such as lubiprostone, are effective in the treatment of patients with chronic constipation. Surgery is sometimes necessary. Total colectomy with ileorectostomy may be considered in patients with slow-transit constipation and inertia coli who are resistant to medical therapy and who do not have defecatory disorders, generalised motility disorders or psychological disorders. Randomised controlled trials have established the efficacy of rehabilitative treatment in dys-synergic defecation. Many surgical procedures may be used to treat obstructed defecation in patients with acquired anatomical defects, but none is considered to be the gold standard. Surgery should be reserved for selected patients with an impaired quality of life. Obstructed defecation is often associated with pelvic organ prolapse. Surgery with the placement of prostheses is replacing fascial surgery in the treatment of pelvic organ prolapse, but the efficacy and safety of such procedures have not yet been established.