Effects of interaction of incubator CO2 levels and mixing hatching eggs of different embryo growth trajectory on embryo physiological and hatching parameters.

1. Two experiments were designed to investigate the effects of mixing eggs of different genotype and incubating with different CO2 concentrations on embryonic parameters. Half of the eggs were incubated in a CO2 controlled incubator (VCO2) during the first 10 d of incubation and the other half was incubated at standard incubation ventilation rate (SV). 2. From 10 to 18 d of incubation, thick albumen and embryos were weighed. Blood samples were collected at d 18 of incubation, at internal pipping and at hatch for determination of triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) and corticosterone concentration. During the last 2 d of incubation, hatching events of individual eggs were monitored every 2 h. 3. From 4 to 5 d of incubation in the SV group of Experiment 1, pH values of Ross strain chickens were lower than those of Isa Brown. From d 12 of incubation onwards, Ross embryos grew faster than those of Isa Brown. At 14 and 16 d of incubation, Ross eggs in the CO2 controlled incubator had lower albumen weights compared to all other treatments. 4. T3 concentrations in Ross embryos were higher than those of Isa Brown embryos. Chicken weight at hatch was in the following order: Isa Brown SV < Isa Brown VCO2 = Ross SV < Ross VCO2. 5. In Experiment 2, incubation time of VCO2 eggs until internal pipping, external pipping and hatch was significantly shorter than that of SV eggs. 6. It was concluded that mixing of hatching eggs of differential embryo developmental trajectory affects their hatching process.

[Alpha-1-antitrypsin phenotypes in togolese population: description of high frequency of rare allele Pi(F) in isolated ethnic group]. / Phénotypes de l'alpha-1-antitrypsine dans la population togolaise : mise en évidence d'une fréquence élevée de l'allèle rare Pi(F) dans une ethnie isolat.

OBJECTIVES: The study, which is a ethnobiologic characterization, investigated α(1)-antitrypsin gene polymorphism in the togolese ethnic groups. We aimed to determine the existence of rare or deficient alleles predisposing to pulmonary or hepatic genetic diseases. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We focused our study on healthy subjects of two samples by comparing 205 Adélé from relative isolated ethnic group alive in mountain region and 255 subjects from pluriethnic population living on Atlantic coastal region. Data analysis was performed by α(1)-antitrypsin level quantification and serum isoelectric focusing. RESULTS: The two alleles Pi(M) et Pi(F) frequencies are respectively 0.834 and 0.166 in Adélé; 0.989 and 0.011 in the subjects from pluriethnic population. Phenotypes MM and FM distribution in the two groups is significantly different (p<0.001). However, α(1)-antitrypsin polymorphism does not significantly influence proteinic and lipidic profiles of the subjects in the two samples. CONCLUSION: The Pi(F) allele of α(1) antitrypsin is rare allele in the world global populations. Its very high frequency in Adélé explained by preferential endogamic marriage in this ethnic group. Compared to the subjects from pluriethnic population, more than 30 Adélé subjects present a higher risk to develop pulmonary diseases according to isoform F properties.

[Evolution of antibiotic-resistance Staphylococcus aureus in Saint Camille Medical Centre in Ouagadougou]. / Evolution de la résistance de Staphylococcus aureus aux antibiotiques au Centre Médical Saint Camille de Ouagadougou.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring the antibiotic resistance of microorganisms in a specific geographic area can be useful in developing new approaches to first-intention antibiotherapy. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to describe the evolution of resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to antibiotics routinely used at Saint Camille Medical Centre in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso from 1996 to 2006. METHOD: Strains of S. aureus, isolated from various pathologic sources were tested to determine their susceptibility to antibiotics. Sensitivity tests were performed in accordance with the guidelines of the Antibiogram Committee of the French Society for Microbiology (version 2007). RESULTS: During the study period, 1160 staphylococci strains were isolated including 73.45% identified as S. aureus. Susceptibility tests demonstrated a significant increase in resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. The proportion of strains showing resistance to ampicillin reached 58.29% in 2000. Resistance to these antibiotics regressed significantly from 2000 to 2006. Resistance to pristinamycin and erythromycin showed a tendency to increase while resistance to gentamicin and oleandomycin showed no statistically significant change. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that S. aureus was the most common Staphylococcus genus present at the center and that it was resistant to several antibiotics. Reducing use of beta-lactam probably accounted for the significant decline in resistance to this type of antibiotic. Care should also be given to the use of other antibiotics such as pristinamycin and erythromycin since resistance appears to be increasing.

[Effect of Morinda lucida Benth. (Rubiaceae) and Newbouldia leavis P. Beauv. (Bignoniaceae) on sickling of red blood cells]. / Effet de Morinda lucida Benth. (Rubiaceae) et de Newbouldia leavis P. Beauv. (Bignoniaceae) sur la falciformation.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the In vitro anti-sickling activity of two plants widely used for treatment of sickle cell disease in Togo, i.e., Morinda lucida et Newbouldia leavis. A concentration-dependent decrease in the rate of sickling was observed after incubation of red blood cells with plant extracts and 2% sodium metabisulfite as compared to incubation with 0.9% NaCl. On samples with a SS blood genotype the inhibition rate of Morinda lucida was 17.30% at a concentration of 1 mg/ml and 92.31% at a concentration of 30 mg/ml. On samples with an AS blood genotype, the inhibition rate of Morinda lucida 48.10% at a concentration of 1 mg/ml and 99.34% at a concentration of 30 mg/ml. Using Newbouldia leavis the inhibition rates at concentrations of 1 mg/ml and 30 mg/ml were 15.66% and 90.42% respectively on samples with a SS blood genotype and 64.03% and 99.02% respectively on samples with an AS blood genotype. The study protocol appeared to be adequate for both SS and AS blood genotypes since the Pearson correlation coefficient between rates measured on the two types of samples was 0.92 for Newuboulida and 0.89 for Morinda. These findings show that these two plants have clear-cut in vitro anti-sickling activity and support their use in traditional medicine.

In vitro effects of crude extracts of Parkia biglobosa (Mimosaceae), Stereospermum kunthianum (Bignoniaceae) and Biophytum petersianum (Oxalidaceae) on corticosteroid secretion in rat.

Previous studies conducted in guinea pig, rat and rabbit have revealed that crude extracts from Parkia biglobosa, Stereospermum kunthianum and Biophytum petersianum exert hypotensive and/or hypoglycemic activities. Since corticosteroids are involved in the control of arterial blood pressure and glycemia, we have investigated the possible effects of these plant extracts on rat adrenal tissue in vitro. Short-term administration of crude semi-ethanolic extracts of P. biglobosa and S. kunthianum to perifused rat adrenal tissue did not induce any significant changes in corticosteroid output. Conversely, the B. petersianum extract caused a dose-dependent increase in corticosterone and aldosterone secretion. Repeated infusions or prolonged administration of B. petersianum extract did not produce any apparent attenuation of the steroid response. Altogether, these data indicate that a semi-ethanolic extract of B. petersianum dose-dependently stimulates corticosterone and aldosterone secretion in rat without any desensitization phenomenon.

Antifungal activities of five Combretaceae used in Togolese traditional medicine.

Five species of Combretaceae growing in Togo were investigated for their antifungal activity against 20 pathogenic fungi (10 yeast and 10 filamentous fungi). The five hydroethanolic extracts of Terminalia glaucescens and Anogeissus leiocarpus appeared to be the most active, their MICs ranging from 0.25 mg/ml to 4 mg/ml. The results confirm the traditional therapeutic properties of these plants.

Antimalarial effects of eight African medicinal plants.

Crude hot water extracts from eight medicinal plants collected in Togo, West Africa, were examined for antimalarial properties against Plasmodium falciparum using an in vitro test. The activity differed with the plant species with extracts of Cassia siamea, Jatropha gossypiifolia and Pavetta crassipes capable of 100% inhibition.

Analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil of Lippia multiflora.

The essential oil of Lippia multiflora Moldenke (Verbenaceae) produced by conventional hydrodistillation was analyzed and studied for its analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activities in rats and mice. At the doses used (2, 4 and 8 ml/kg o.s.) the essential oil of L. multiflora showed significant and dose-dependent analgesic effect on acetic acid-induced writhing in mice. Only the dose of 8 ml/kg of essential oil, antagonized hyperexia induced by brewer's yeast. No effect on granuloma formation was observed.

[Antibiotic sensitivity of strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated in Lome]. / Sensibilité aux antibiotiques des souches de Staphylococcus aureus isolées à Lomé.

Use of antibiotics in infectious diseases is frequent. But such a use is not always based on antibiograms and is often not justified. One of the serious consequences of it against public health is the selection of multiresistant strains. So, the authors carried out some researches to determine the profiles of resistance against antibiotics of the strains of S. aureus which is a pathogen frequent in Togo. Sensitivity of the strains was studied in vitro by diffusion method with gelose. The results show that out of 29 antibiotics tested, the 7 most efficient are: rifampicin (91.5 p.c.), sisomicin (91 p.c.), gentamicin (85.64 p.c.), dibekacin (85.8 p.c.), rifamycin (85.71 p.c.). On the contrary, these strains are resistant against tetracycline (96.02 p.c.), colistin (93.39 p.c.) and doxycycline (92.39 p.c.). consequently, selective pressure of these three antibiotics is very high at Lome. Restriction or temporary suppression of their use commands attention in view of preventing the spread of such resistances.

[Anti-cholinergic effect of Pluchea ovalis (pers.) Dc. (asteraceae) root extract on isolated Wistar rat tracheae]. / Effet anti-cholinergique de la racine de Pluchea ovalis (pers.) Dc. (asteraceae) sur la trachée artère de rat in vitro.

Ethanolic extract of Pluchea ovalis roots inhibit acetylcholine-induced bronchoconstriction observed in asthma. To understand the mechanism of P. ovalis root extract on airway smooth muscle contraction, we investigated the anti-cholinergic effect of the ethanolic extract on isolated isolated tracheae of the Wistar rat. For this purpose, three experimental conditions of incubation were used: idomethacin, indomethacin+propranolol or indomethacin+propranolo+ promethazine. The extract was applied in all three conditions at 0.25 mg/ml for 10 minutes prior to cumulative doses of acetylcholine (10(-8) to 5.10(-4) g/ml). The extract reduced acetylcholine-induced contraction and could have an antagonistic effect on muscarinic receptors of the rat trachea.

Acute and Sub-Acute Toxicity Studies of Plumeria alba Linn. (Apocynaceae) Hydroalcoholic Extract in Rat.

Plumeria alba Linn (Apocynaceae) is used in Togolese traditional medicine to treat diabetes mellitus and wounds. The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the toxicity of hydroalcoholic extract of Plumeria alba roots in Sprague Dawley rats. The acute toxicity test was conducted by administering orally dose of 5 g/Kg. General behavior and mortality were examined for up to 14 days. The sub-acute toxicity test was performed by daily gavage at 250, 500 and 1000 mg/Kg for 28 days. Body weight and blood glucose were measured weekly. Hematological and biochemical parameters, relative organ weight were determined at the end of the 28 days administration. In acute study, no adverse effect of the extract was observed at 5.0 g/Kg. Sub-acute oral administration of the extract at the dose up to 1000 mg/Kg did not induce death or significant changes in body weight, relative weight of vital organs, hematological parameters and was not associated with liver and kidney toxicity.

Preliminary evaluation of the wound healing effect of Vitex doniana sweet (Verbenaceae) in mice.

Vitex doniana is traditionally used in Togo to treat various diseases including wounds. The aim of this work was to evaluate the efficiency of Vitex doniana on cutaneous wound healing. Wounds were induced in ICR mice divided into four groups as following: Group I received carbopol 974P NF empty gel, Groups II and III were treated topically with carbopol gel containing 2.5% and 5% of Vitex doniana extract. Group IV received Betadine® 10% as standard drug. The efficacy of treatment was evaluated by planimetry and histological analysis. We secondary used the gel containing Vitex doniana at 2.5% and the pure extract at 10 mg/ml on the model of ear edema induced by xylene. Skin toxicity test was performed with the gel containing Vitex doniana at 5% and the pure extract at 30 mg/ml. Vitex doniana at 5% and 2.5% provided better wound contraction (91.14% and 86.38%) at day 12 post-excision when compared to control (51.15%). The results of histological evaluation supported the outcome of excision wound model. Moreover Vitex doniana inhibited significantly edema induced by xylene when compared to control (p< 0.05). In skin toxicity test, no abnormal symptoms were developed over 14 day-time period. Vitex doniana inhibits the topical inflammation and accelerate cutaneous wound repair.

Preliminary experience with tele-sonography and tele-mammography in Togo.

Many medical centres are equipped with a sonograph. However, a sonographist is not always present or is not trained in all of the specialised domains of sonography. . A sonogram is not always possible due to a lack of physicians. This situation has given rise to the concept of remote-controlled sonography: tele-sonography, a medical procedure used in remote sonographic diagnosis in real time or deferred time. Tele-sonography can now be carried out in real time by the transmission of the expert's procedure (robotic system) or by the use of a 3D sonograph in real time. These modes of real time tele-sonography rely on expensive technologies requiring budgets and an infrastructure that is not always possible in developing countries where the needs in tele-medicine are increasing. This paper aimed to present a preliminary evaluation of a "low cost" system of sonographic tele-expertise in real time and the deferred sonographic telediagnosis accompanied by a tele-mammography between expert sites (university hospitals) and isolated sites (peripheral hospitals, dispensaries).

[System of telesonography with synchronous teleconsultations and asynchronous telediagnoses (Togo)]. / Système de télé-expertise échographique temps réel et de télédiagnostic échographique temps différé. Étude pilote au Togo.

INTRODUCTION: Ultrasonography is an important nonirradiating diagnostic medical imaging procedure, frequently used, especially in urgent circumstances. This relatively inexpensive noninvasive examination makes it possible to diagnose disorders in various parts of the human body, by examining, for example, the abdomen and pelvis, the cardiovascular system, and the muscles and joints. Ultrasound is also an operator-dependent examination, in that the quality of the result depends on precision in the manipulation of the probe. Unfortunately, many small medical centers and isolated sites do not have an appropriate well-trained sonographer to perform initial evaluations, and an untrained operator cannot capture the appropriate echographic views required for a safe diagnosis of current patients, even with realtime vocal guidance (personal data). The lack of experienced physicians or qualified technicians means that diagnostic ultrasound is not always accessible to patients for rapid examination worldwide, especially in Africa, Amazonia or near the North or South Poles. This situation has led to the development of a new concept of telemedicine: telesonography, with a remote ultrasound diagnosis either in real time (synchronous) or delayed (asynchronous; store-and-forward). These systems of real-time telesonography and data transmission require expensive and complex technology with sophisticated equipment not available in many developing countries. The purpose of this study is to design a low-cost real-time system of telesonography for teleconsultations with experts and a delayed telediagnostic mode between isolated peripheral hospitals and a University Hospital center (UHC). METHODS AND MATERIALS: An IP camera and an internet video server were installed in a geographically isolated site equipped with an ultrasound machine and an operator with basic training in its use. Synchronous teleconsultation (second-opinion diagnosis) is possible via internet with a UHC expert. If no ultrasound operator is available at the isolated center, volume capture-and-store software is used. Later on, the UHC expert uses Echo-Cnes 3D software to reconstruct the organs scanned. The expert can then navigate within the reconstructed volume and display any plane. Volume capture is performed by tilting (± 40°) to both sides vertically to the skin. To locate the probe on the organ acoustic window, the novice operator uses acoustic window mapping designed by our laboratory (UMPS-Tours). The system was tested between the Tsévié regional hospital in Togo (40 km from Lomé, Togo, and 4500 km from Tours, France) and the UHC at Lomé and the Trousseau UHC in Tours. RESULTS: With an average internet connection of 2 Mbps, the quality of transmission of the background video and ultrasound sequence videos from Tsévié towards Lomé was satisfactory (16 images/s) with a maximal transmission delay of 1.5 s (almost in real time). A video conference between the Trousseau UHC in Tours, the UHC Campus in Lomé and the Tsévié Hospital was possible and the bandwidth allowed the Lomé experts (radiologists) to perform real-time telesonography with very satisfactory results (ultrasound diagnoses obtained) for abdominal (n = 5), pelvic (n = 3), obstetric (n = 2), prostate (n = 2) and mammary (n = 2) ultrasound, both normal and pathological. Because the doctors at Tsévié had minimal experience with ultrasound, complete ultrasound diagnoses were obtained by combining remote voice instruction for image capture and full diagnosis by Echo-Cnes. Asynchronous telediagnosis was also performed with Tsévié operators who lacked ultrasound expertise but could perform the required tilt movements (after 3 training sessions). The expert at Trousseau UHC performed real-time telesonography with the Tsévié Hospital for two cases requiring abdominal images and another viewing of the prostate. He also performed asynchronous reconstruction of the abdominal organs with Echo-Cnes. A demonstration seminar of our platform was organized successfully for 2 days during the 9(th) Congress of the French-speaking Black Africa Society of Radiology (SRANF in French) held from 4 till 6 May 2011 at the hotel EDA OBA. During this seminar, 4 ultrasound teleconsultations were performed from the hotel by eminent African radiologists. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: This preliminary study, although limited in the number of patients, allowed us to assess the technical features of our telesonography system. Togo, a developing country with a very modest infrastructure for information and communication, was an ideal site for a first test of this platform. Our system of remote ultrasound requires the local patient center to be equipped simply with a 2D ultrasound machine. The cost is quite low, in comparison to the asynchronous techniques requiring 3D devices. The high cost of 3D or 4D ultrasound machines and their fragility make it difficult to install them at the isolated sites and was a serious obstacle in the development of this system. If the center already has a 2D device and a computer, the cost to equip it with the remaining communications materials is 1,500 €. The experience in Togo clearly highlighted the possibility of teletraining and complete teleradiology with our system. The next stage of this work will seek to validate the results of this preliminary experience on a larger sample with more precise assessment criteria in 2012. The results will allow the widespread dissemination and routine use of this system in developing countries.

An ethnobotanical study of antimalarial plants in Togo Maritime Region.

BACKGROUND: Malaria continues to be of great concern in Togo, as it accounts for high mortality rates, principally in children. Although plant-based medicines are the only means in major malarious regions of the country, still very little is known about the medicinal plants and medical practices of the indigenous people. OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to document the indigenous medicinal plant utilization for the management of malaria and related symptoms in Togo Maritime Region. METHODOLOGY: Fifty Traditional Healers (TH) were selected with the help leaders of Togolese Traditional Healers Associations and information on their knowledge on the use of plants for malaria therapeutic purposes was gathered using a semi-structured interviews. RESULTS: After enquiries, 52 plant species belonging to 49 genera and 29 families were recorded. The most represented families were Rubiaceae and Rutaceae with four species each. Traditional healers agreed more in the treatment of malaria (ICF=0.70), fever (ICF=0.33) and anemia (ICF=0.20). For the treatment of malaria, 38.46% (20/52) of the species cited in the study were of high fidelity level (FL=100%). The leaves (58.22%), leafy stem (33.78%) and fruits (8.52%) were the most used parts in concoctions. The main mode of preparation was decoction (69%) and the administration was essentially by oral route (79%) and body-bath (14%). CONCLUSION: The issue of the study showed that Togo Maritime Region TH have a good knowledge of antimalarial plants. However the study must be extend to the whole country to lead to innovative strategies in malaria control. Such results could be a starting point for in vitro antimalarial screenings.

Characterization of HIV-1 genotypes and antiretroviral drug-resistance mutations among patients in Burkina Faso.

The purposes of this study were: (1) to describe the genetic variability of HIV strains found in Burkina Faso, (2) to characterize non-B HIV strains mutation profiles selected by ARVs and (3) to detect possible resistances induced by ARV drugs. From 30 October 2002 to 20 November 2003, 132 HIV 1-positive patients taking Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) for more than one year in Bobo-Dioulasso and Ouagadougou were included. T-CD4+ lymphocytes count was done using Dynabeads technique while genotypic test and ARV-resistance tests were conducted using Pol sequencing that codes for reverse transcriptase reverse, integrase and protease. Due to undetectable viremia, 86 samples out of 132 could not be characterized. Whereas in the 46 others that had a viral load exceeding 1000 copies mL(-1), the following HIV-1 subtypes were identified: CRF06 (54,55%); CRF02(38,63%); CRF01 (4,55%) and subtype A (2,27%). In addition, several mutations related to PI, NRTI and NNRTI resistance were isolated in 27 samples. This study found a huge genetic HIV-1 polymorphism in Burkina Faso. The level of acquired resistance to ARV after one year of treatment amounted 20.4%. These results clearly show that there is imperative need to set up an ARV resistance surveillance network in Burkina Faso to guide treatment strategies and follow the extension of the phenomenon in the country.

Effects of three compounds extracted from Morinda lucida on Plasmodium falciparum.

The effects of three compounds, digitolutein (1), rubiadin 1-methyl ether (2) and damnacanthal (3) extracted from the stem bark and the roots of Morinda lucida Benth. on the growth of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro were investigated. The number of parasites (schizonts) decreased significantly in a dose-dependent manner, and 100% of inhibition was obtained with 30 to 40 micrograms of each compound tested. The IC50 values were calculated.

Investigation of medicinal plants of togo for antiviral and antimicrobial activities.

Methanol extracts were prepared from 19 medicinal plants of Togo and, by means of standard laboratory tests, were analysed for antiviral and antibiotic activities. Ten of the 19 showed significant antiviral activity and all but two displayed antibiotic activity. Extracts of three species, Adansonia digitata (the most potent), Conyza aegyptiaca and Palisota hirsuta , were active against all three test viruses (herpes simplex, Sindbis and poliovirus). The other seven, however, were more selective, showing activity against only one or two viruses. The antibiotic profiles varied considerably. The observation that each extract showed a distinctive permutation of target organisms suggests that different bioactive phytochemicals are present in each species. Only two of the extracts were devoid of bioactivity.

Further iinvestigations on the antiviral activities of medicinal plants of togo.

Further studies were done on the antiviral activities of 10 species of Togolese medicinal plants, previously shown to possess activity against herpes simplex virus (HSV). The dominant activity in all cases was virucidal (direct inactivation of virus particles), although Adansonia digitata extracts also appeared to have intracellular antiviral activities as well, which could indicate the presence of multiple antiviral compounds, or a single compound with multiple actions. In the seven most active extracts, the anti-HSV activity was considerably enhanced by light, especially UVA (long wavelength UV), although they all showed "dark" antiviral activity as well. Thus, all the extracts contained antiviral photosensitizers. In all tests, the root-bark and leaf extracts of A. digitata were the most potent.

Bioassay-guided isolation and identification of antifungal compounds from ginger.

A bioassay-guided isolation of antifungal compounds from an African land race of ginger, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, led to the identification of [6], [8] and [10]-gingerols and [6]-gingerdiol as the main antifungal principles. The compounds were active against 13 human pathogens at concentrations of <1 mg/mL. The gingerol content of the African land race was at least 3 x higher than that of typical commercial cultivars of ginger. Therefore, ginger extracts standardized on the basis of the identified compounds, could be considered as antifungal agents for practical therapy.