Tissue-specific proteolysis of Huntingtin (htt) in human brain: evidence of enhanced levels of N- and C-terminal htt fragments in Huntington's disease striatum.

Proteolysis of mutant huntingtin (htt) has been hypothesized to occur in Huntington's disease (HD) brains. Therefore, this in vivo study examined htt fragments in cortex and striatum of adult HD and control human brains by Western blots, using domain-specific anti-htt antibodies that recognize N- and C-terminal domains of htt (residues 181-810 and 2146-2541, respectively), as well as the 17 residues at the N terminus of htt. On the basis of the patterns of htt fragments observed, different "protease-susceptible domains" were identified for proteolysis of htt in cortex compared with striatum, suggesting that htt undergoes tissue-specific proteolysis. In cortex, htt proteolysis occurs within two different N-terminal domains, termed protease-susceptible domains "A" and "B." However, in striatum, a different pattern of fragments indicated that proteolysis of striatal htt occurred within a C-terminal domain termed "C," as well as within the N-terminal domain region designated "A". Importantly, striatum from HD brains showed elevated levels of 40-50 kDa N-terminal and 30-50 kDa C-terminal fragments compared with that of controls. Increased levels of these htt fragments may occur from a combination of enhanced production or retarded degradation of fragments. Results also demonstrated tissue-specific ubiquitination of certain htt N-terminal fragments in striatum compared with cortex. Moreover, expansions of the triplet-repeat domain of the IT15 gene encoding htt was confirmed for the HD tissue samples studied. Thus, regulated tissue-specific proteolysis and ubiquitination of htt occur in human HD brains. These results suggest that the role of huntingtin proteolysis should be explored in the pathogenic mechanisms of HD.

Specific caspase interactions and amplification are involved in selective neuronal vulnerability in Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant progressive neurodegenerative disorder resulting in selective neuronal loss and dysfunction in the striatum and cortex. The molecular pathways leading to the selectivity of neuronal cell death in HD are poorly understood. Proteolytic processing of full-length mutant huntingtin (Htt) and subsequent events may play an important role in the selective neuronal cell death found in this disease. Despite the identification of Htt as a substrate for caspases, it is not known which caspase(s) cleaves Htt in vivo or whether regional expression of caspases contribute to selective neuronal cells loss. Here, we evaluate whether specific caspases are involved in cell death induced by mutant Htt and if this correlates with our recent finding that Htt is cleaved in vivo at the caspase consensus site 552. We find that caspase-2 cleaves Htt selectively at amino acid 552. Further, Htt recruits caspase-2 into an apoptosome-like complex. Binding of caspase-2 to Htt is polyglutamine repeat-length dependent, and therefore may serve as a critical initiation step in HD cell death. This hypothesis is supported by the requirement of caspase-2 for the death of mouse primary striatal cells derived from HD transgenic mice expressing full-length Htt (YAC72). Expression of catalytically inactive (dominant-negative) forms of caspase-2, caspase-7, and to some extent caspase-6, reduced the cell death of YAC72 primary striatal cells, while the catalytically inactive forms of caspase-3, -8, and -9 did not. Histological analysis of post-mortem human brain tissue and YAC72 mice revealed activation of caspases and enhanced caspase-2 immunoreactivity in medium spiny neurons of the striatum and the cortical projection neurons when compared to controls. Further, upregulation of caspase-2 correlates directly with decreased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the cortex and striatum of 3-month YAC72 transgenic mice and therefore suggests that these changes are early events in HD pathogenesis. These data support the involvement of caspase-2 in the selective neuronal cell death associated with HD in the striatum and cortex.

Evidence for functional localization of the proenkephalin-processing enzyme, prohormone thiol protease, to secretory vesicles of chromaffin cells.

The biosynthesis of enkephalin opioid neuropeptides as well as numerous peptide hormones and neurotransmitters requires proteolytic processing of the respective prohormone precursors. We previously identified a novel cysteine protease known as prohormone thiol protease (PTP) as the major proenkephalin-processing enzyme in chromaffin granules (secretory vesicles) of bovine adrenal medulla. In this study, colocalization of PTP with (Met)enkephalin in regulated secretory vesicles was assessed by immunochemical approaches. Western blots demonstrated the presence of PTP in chromaffin granules, with equivalent levels of PTP protein in the soluble and membrane components of the vesicle. The presence of PTP in pituitary was also demonstrated by immunoblots. Immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated immunogold-labeled PTP and (Met)enkephalin within isolated chromaffin granules. In primary cultures of chromaffin cells, the discrete pattern of PTP and (Met)enkephalin immunofluorescence staining in neuritic extensions and cytoplasmic (perinuclear) regions of chromaffin cells is consistent with localization to secretory vesicles. Moreover, cosecretion of PTP and (Met)enkephalin from chromaffin cells occurred upon KCl depolarization in a calcium-dependent manner, indicating the localization of PTP and (Met)enkephalin within regulated secretory vesicles. Calcium-dependent secretion is a well known property of regulated secretory vesicle exocytosis. Overall, these results are consistent with the localization of PTP to functional, regulated secretory vesicles that contain (Met)enkephalin.

Identification of zymogen and mature forms of human carboxypeptidase H. A processing enzyme for the synthesis of peptide hormones.

Carboxypeptidase H (CPH) is one of several processing enzymes required for the conversion of peptide hormone precursors into their smaller active forms. In this study, high levels of CPH activity was found in a liver metastasis of a human ileal carcinoid which expresses beta-preprotachykinin mRNA and the tachykinin neuropeptides, substance P and substance K. This human CPH showed properties of a zinc-metallopeptidase that is structurally similar to bovine and rat CPH. Immunoblots of the human ileal carcinoma with anti-bovine CPH showed that CPH activity is represented by two proteins of apparent molecular masses 57 and 55 kDa. Cell-free translation of poly(A)+ RNA followed by immunoprecipitation with anti-bovine CPH showed that human CPH mRNA encodes a precursor protein of apparent molecular mass 75 kDa. These data demonstrate that human CPH is synthesized as a zymogen, prepro-CPH, which must be cleaved to form catalytically active CPH.

Unique cleavage specificity of 'prohormone thiol protease' related to proenkephalin processing.

'Prohormone thiol protease' (PTP) represents the major enkephalin precursor processing activity in chromaffin granules. In this study, cleavage specificity of PTP for paired basic and monobasic residues was examined with a series of model peptide-MCA (-methylcoumarinamide) substrates. Monobasic peptides were cleaved at the COOH- and NH2-terminal sides of the single basic residue. Dibasic peptides, however, were preferentially cleaved at the NH2-terminal side of the pair, or between the two basic residues, with low cleavage at the COOH-terminal side of the pair. Inhibition by the peptide inhibitor (D-Tyr)-Glu-Phe-Lys-Arg-CH2Cl provided further evidence for PTP's specificity for the dibasic Lys-Arg site. Inhibition by Z-Leu-Val-Gly-CHN2 and Z-Arg-Leu-Val-Gly-CHN2 suggests involvement of Val-Gly in substrate binding to PTP; these two cystatin C-related inhibitors also indicate PTP as a cysteine protease. These results demonstrate PTP's unique cleavage specificity that differs from other processing endopeptidases, including the subtilisin-related proprotein convertases, PC1/PC3, and PC2, as well as the pituitary proopiomelanocortin-converting enzyme, PCE. This study provides further evidence for PTP as a novel prohormone processing enzyme that belongs to the class of cysteine proteases.

Two peptidases that convert 125I-Lys-Arg-(Met)enkephalin and 125I-(Met)enkephalin-Arg6, respectively, to 125I-(Met)enkephalin in bovine adrenal medullary chromaffin granules.

Two peptidases which convert 125I-Lys-Arg-ME and 125I-ME-Arg6, respectively, to 125I-ME, have been identified and characterized in bovine adrenomedullary chromaffin granules. The former is referred to as a secretory granule peptidase (SGP) and the latter as a carboxypeptidase B-like enzyme (CPB-like) [7] which is here further characterized. SGP cleaved 125I-Lys-Arg-ME to produce only 125I-ME and was localized in chromaffin granules which contained Co2+-stimulated CPB-like activity, ME, and catecholamines. Both the SGP and the CPB-like enzymes appear to be thiol-metalloproteases. While the CPB-like enzyme seems likely to be involved in processing the enkephalin precursors [7], SGP may function as a trypsin-like or aminopeptidase enzyme in secretory granules.

Unique reactive site domains of neuroendocrine isoforms of alpha 1-antichymotrypsin from bovine adrenal medulla and pituitary revealed by molecular cloning.

Molecular cloning of bovine adrenal medulla (AM) and pituitary (Pit) alpha 1-antichymotrypsin cDNAs indicated novel isoforms of ACT. The deduced primary sequences indicated that the AM ACT and Pit ACT possess COOH-terminal reactive-site domains that are characteristic of serpins (serine protease inhibitors). Of high interest was the finding of unique reactive sites within AM ACT and Pit ACT which are predicted to possess Arg as P1 residue. Arginine as P1 residue parallels the cleavage specificity of neuroendocrine prohormone processing enzymes cleaving at basic residues. Furthermore, RT-PCR indicated tissue-specific expression of AM and Pit ACT mRNAs. The AM and Pit isoforms of ACT may regulate novel target proteases involved in neuroendocrine function.

Expression of recombinant pro-neuropeptide Y, proopiomelanocortin, and proenkephalin: relative processing by 'prohormone thiol protease' (PTP).

The preference of the 'prohormone thiol protease' (PTP), a candidate prohormone processing enzyme, for different peptide precursors was assessed in vitro with recombinant prohormones near estimated in vivo levels. Pro-neuropeptide Y (pro-NPY), proopiomelanocortin (POMC), and proenkephalin (PE) were expressed at high levels in E. coli. Purification of prohormones utilized a combination of DEAE-Sepharose, Mono Q, and preparative electrophoresis. PTP cleaved PE most readily, and also cleaved pro-NPY. The processing of POMC by PTP was minimal. These results demonstrate PTP's preference for certain prohormone substrates.

Sympathetic axons and nerve terminals: the protein composition of small and large dense-core and of a third type of vesicles.

Homogenates of bovine splenic nerve and of vas deferens were subjected to differential and density gradient centrifugation to investigate their noradrenaline-storing organelles. The subcellular fractions obtained were analysed by immunoblotting in order to define the presence of various antigens in small dense-core and large dense-core vesicles. In both large granule and microsomal fractions from splenic nerve only one type of noradrenaline-storing vesicle was found, which represents the large dense-core vesicles. These organelles contained chromogranin A, chromogranin B, cytochrome b-561, carboxypeptidase H, glycoprotein II, glycoprotein III, dopamine beta-hydroxylase and the monoamine carrier which are also present in adrenal chromaffin granules. The subcellular distribution of synaptin/synatophysin was more complex since this protein was apparently present in two organelles: in a light vesicle which did not contain significant amounts of antigens found in large dense-core vesicles (dopamine beta-hydroxylase, cytochrome b-561 and the monoamine carrier) and in the dense fractions of the gradient, possibly within large dense-core vesicles. In the microsomal gradient from vas deferens several markers (catecholamines, synaptin/synaptophysin and dopamine beta-hydroxylase) were found in a bimodal distribution, which is consistent with their presence in small and large dense-core vesicles. When the larger granules were removed with higher centrifugation speed a microsomal fraction containing only light vesicles was obtained. After gradient centrifugation of this fraction several components (catecholamines, dopamine beta-hydroxylase, cytochrome b-561, the monoamine carrier and synaptin/synaptophysin) were concentrated in a peak at low density; apparently only small dense-core vesicles were now present.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Detection of proteolytic activity by fluorescent zymogram in-gel assays.

Proteases are involved in the regulation of many biological functions. This study describes a novel method for detecting protease activity by fluorescent zymogram in-gel protease assays, using SDS polyacrylamide gels copolymerized with a peptide-MCA (4-methyl-coumaryl-7-amide) substrate. This method allows simultaneous determination of protease cleavage specificity and molecular weight. Trypsin was electrophoresed in SDS polyacrylamide gels copolymerized with Boc-Gln-Ala-Arg-MCA, the gel was then incubated in assay buffer, and trypsin cleavage of the peptide-MCA substrate generated fluorescent AMC (7-amino-4-methyl-coumarin), which was subsequently detected under UV transillumination. Chymotrypsin activity was detected in gels copolymerized with Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-MCA substrate. Selective detection of these proteases was demonstrated by the absence of trypsin activity in gels containing the chymotrypsin substrate, and the lack of chymotrypsin activity in gels containing the trypsin substrate. Detection of proteolytic activity from secretory vesicles of adrenal medulla (chromaffin granules) was observed with the trypsin substrate, Z-Phe-Arg-MCA, but not with the chymotrypsin substrate. Overall, this sensitive fluorescent zymogram in-gel protease assay method can be used for rapid determination of protease cleavage specificity and enzyme molecular weight in biological samples. This assay should be useful for many research disciplines investigating the role of the many proteases that control cellular functions.

Corticotropin releasing factor stimulation of protein carboxylmethylation in mouse pituitary tumor cells.

A putative role for the protein carboxylmethylase (PCM) enzyme has been suggested in exocytotic secretion. The involvement of 3H-methyl incorporation into protein carboxylmethyl esters during corticotropin releasing factor (CRF)-induced ACTH secretion from AtT-20/D16-16 mouse pituitary cells was investigated. Protein carboxylmethylation and ACTH secretion both increased as a function of extracellular CRF concentration, and both processes were temporally parallel up to 60 min incubation. The less potent [Met(O)21]-CRF also stimulated increases in protein carboxylmethylation and ACTH secretion. The free acid analogue of CRF did not alter either process. A combination of the PCM inhibitors, 3-deazaadenosine and L-homocysteine thiolactone, reduced both CRF-stimulated protein carboxylmethylation and ACTH release. Dexamethasone, known to inhibit ACTH secretion and synthesis, inhibited both CRF-stimulated protein carboxylmethylation and ACTH secretion.

Identification of carboxypeptidase H transcripts by antisense RNA.

Carboxypeptidase H is a metallopeptidase involved in the processing of neuropeptide precursors and prohormones. In this study, northern analysis with antisense CPH RNA as probe detected the presence of three CPH mRNA transcripts of 2.2, 2.6, and 5.9 kb that are expressed in a tissue-specific manner in several species. Specifically, mouse brain and the mouse AtT-20 corticotroph cell line possess all three transcripts, but mouse pituitary and adrenal possess the 2.2 kb CPH mRNA as the main form. In bovine, the 5.9 kb CPH mRNA was detected in adrenal medulla, but not in pituitary; whereas, both of these bovine tissues possess the 2.2 kb form. Also, in rat brain, adrenal, heart, and pituitary, the 5.9 m,kb form was detected mainly in brain, and the 2.6 kb form was most abundant in pituitary; all rat tissues examined possessed the 2.2 kb form. Additional evidence for the existence of the largest CPH transcript was provided from a bovine adrenal medulla cDNA library by in vitro transcription of total library phage DNA, followed by analysis of resultant RNAs by Northern blot. It will be important in future studies to define the structural similarities and differences among these multiple CPH mRNA transcripts that are expressed in a tissue-specific manner.

Molecular cloning demonstrates structural features of homologous bovine prohormone convertases 1 and 2.

PC1 and PC2 (prohormone convertase) represent neuroendocrine members of the mammalian subtilisin-like family of proprotein convertases. The goal of this study was to compare the primary sequence motifs of bovine PC1 and PC2 with those of homologs from other mammalian species to establish the structural basis for PC1 and PC2 activities in bovine that resemble other mammalian homologs. Molecular cloning from bovine adrenal medulla resulted in the isolation of cDNAs for bovine PC1 and PC2 with highly conserved primary sequences with respect to signal sequence, prosegment, catalytic domain, and P domain. Bovine PC1 and PC2 contained the catalytic triad residues Asp, His, Ser, which are identical to the triads in PC1 and PC2 from other mammalian species. Bovine PCl contained Asn as the oxyanion hole residue; in contrast, bovine PC2 contained Asp as the oxyanion hole residue, which is identical to PC2 in other mammalian species. Bovine PC1 and PC2 possessed the P domain that contains the functional RRGDL motif. The cloned cDNAs detected expression of PC1 and PC2 mRNAs in bovine adrenal medulla. These results establish the defined structural domains of bovine PC1 and PC2 that are known to be essential for the activities of these enzymes in various species.

Proenkephalin-processing enzymes in chromaffin granules: model for neuropeptide biosynthesis.

Our discovery of precursor preference of processing enzymes indicates possible development of future drugs that target specific proteases uniquely associated associated with processing of a particular prohormone. For example, selective processing of PE by the PTP suggests that future evaluation of modulation of PTP through central nervous system drug reagents may modify the endogenous analgesic effects of the enkephalins. With respect to blood pressure, neuropeptide Y (NPY) that is released from sympathetic nerve terminals is a strong vasoconstrictor. Our finding that only PTP (not PC1/3, PC2, or the aspartic proteinase) possesses the ability to convert pro-NPY to NPY suggests that investigation of inhibitors of peripheral PTP in blood pressure regulation should be initiated. Overall, elucidation of the proteolytic components required in prohormone processing will provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of human disease.

Carboxypeptidase H-like immunoreactivity in the striatum of cats and monkeys.

The enzyme carboxypeptidase H was detected by immunohistochemistry in the striatum of adult cats and monkeys. Specific labelling was observed in the neuropil as well as in both medium-sized and large neuronal cell bodies. The distribution of neurons and neuropil expressing immunoreactivity to carboxypeptidase H was examined in relation to the pattern of immunoreactivity to the neuropeptides enkephalin and substance P. Carboxypeptidase H-like immunoreactivity was found both in zones rich and poor in immunostaining for the two peptides, but was usually denser in those striatal areas in which substance P-positive cell bodies are clustered (striosomes). The results further suggest a role for carboxypeptidase H in the metabolism of multiple neuropeptides in vivo.

Carboxypeptidase B-like activity for the processing of enkephalin precursors in the membrane component of bovine adrenomedullary chromaffin granules.

Trypsin and carboxypeptidase B-like (CPB-like) peptidases should be involved in processing proenkephalin to form the small biologically active enkephalins. A carboxypeptidase B-like activity from the soluble fraction of bovine adrenomedullary chromaffin granules which converts 125I-(Met)-enkephalin-Arg6 to 125I-(Met)enkephalin has previously been described and characterized (1,2). In this study, CPB-like activity in the membrane bound component of chromaffin granules is characterized and compared with that in the soluble fraction. Membrane and soluble CPB activities cleaved 125I-(Met)enkephalin-Arg6 or 125I-(Met)enkephalin-Lys6 to form 125I-(Met)enkephalin. Like the soluble enzyme, the CPB-like activity in the membrane component had a pH optimum of 6.0, was inhibited by thiol agents (PCMPSA, CuCl2) and metal ion chelators (EDTA, 1,10-phenanthroline), and was stimulated by Co++. The membrane CPB-like activity appeared to be an intrinsic membrane protein, since 80% of the activity remained with the membranes after washing with 1.0 M NaCl. Membrane and soluble CPB-like activities in chromaffin granules appear to be similar enzymes.

Distribution of enkephalin-containing peptides within bovine chromaffin granules.

The distribution of large enkephalin-containing peptides (ECP's) between soluble and membrane components of bovine chromaffin granules was examined by immunoblotting with synenkephalin antiserum which recognizes the NH2-terminus of proenkephalin. Immunoblots showed that the 23.3 and 18.2 kilodalton ECP's were present in both soluble and membrane granule compartments but the 12.6 kilodalton ECP was present only in the soluble fraction. These results suggest that the larger ECP's may be preferentially associated with the granule membrane and may be redistributed to the soluble granule compartment upon proteolytic processing.

Identification of two glycoproteins of chromaffin granules as the carboxypeptidase H.

An antiserum against carboxypeptidase H, an enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of neuropeptides such as the enkephalins, was used to identify the enzyme proteins in bovine chromaffin granules. Two-dimensional immuno- and lectin-blots revealed that two closely migrating glycoproteins which have been previously named J and K represented the enzyme. The same protein doublet was present in the membrane preparation and the soluble lysate of bovine chromaffin granules; however, the membrane contained significantly more enzyme protein.

Arginine and lysine product inhibition of bovine adrenomedullary carboxypeptidase H, a prohormone processing enzyme.

Carboxypeptidase H (CPH) is one of the later enzymes in the cascade of proteolytic steps required for the posttranslational processing of peptide hormone precursors, including processing of proenkephalin. In this study, CPH activity in the soluble and membrane fractions of enkephalin-containing bovine chromaffin granules was competitively inhibited by its products arginine and lysine. Ki values for arginine and lysine were 4.6 +/- 1.3 and 7.6 +/- 1.9 mM, respectively, indicating that arginine was a more effective inhibitor than lysine. Other amino acids (at 10 mM) had no effect. The in vivo intragranular concentrations of lysine and arginine are similar to the measured Ki values, indicating that product inhibition of CPH by basic amino acids may occur in vivo.