Ultrasound and surfactant-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction prior to poly(ethylene oxide)-mediated stacking in CE for highly sensitive determination of barbiturates in human fluids.

This study developed a facile, highly sensitive technique for extracting and quantifying barbiturates in serum samples. This method combined ultrasound and surfactant-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction with poly(ethylene oxide)-mediated stacking in capillary electrophoresis. Factors influencing the extraction and stacking performance, such as the type and volume of extraction solvents, the type and concentration of surfactant, extraction time, salt additives, sample matrix, solution pH, and composition of the background electrolyte, were carefully studied and optimized to achieve the optimal detection sensitivity. Under the optimized extraction (injecting 140 µL C2 H4 Cl2 into 1 mL of sample with pH 4 (5 mM sodium phosphate containing 0.05 mM Tween 20 and sonication for 1 min) and separation conditions (150 mM tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane-borate with pH 8.5 containing 0.5% (m/v) poly(ethylene oxide)), the limits of detection (signal-to-noise ratio = 3) of five barbiturates ranged from 0.20 to 0.33 ng/mL, and the calculated sensitivity improvement ranged from 868- to 1700-fold. The experimental results revealed excellent linearity (R2  > 0.99), with relative standard deviations of 2.1%-3.4% for the migration time and 4.3%-5.7% for the peak area. The recoveries of the spiked serum samples were 97.1% -110.3%. Our proposed approach offers a rapid and practical method for quantifying barbiturates in biological fluids.

Directed self-assembly of Ag+-deposited MoS2 quantum dots for colorimetric, fluorescent and fluorescence-lifetime sensing of alkaline phosphatase.

We developed a triple-readout probe for colorimetric, fluorescent, and fluorescence-lifetime sensing of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) through the hydrolyzed ascorbic acid phosphate (AAP)-mediated formation of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on Ag+-deposited MoS2 quantum dots (QDs). Ag+ ions were self-assembled on a monolayer MoS2 QD surface through the formation of Ag-S bonds. When ALP hydrolyzed AAP in an alkaline buffer, the resultant ascorbic acid (AA) triggered the reduction of the bound Ag+ ions into AgNPs on the MoS2 QD surface. The resultant AgNPs induced an efficient fluorescence quenching of the MoS2 QDs through simultaneous static and dynamic quenching processes, generated an intense surface plasmon resonance peak, and triggered a reduction in the fluorescence lifetime of the MoS2 QDs. Electron microscopy and spectroscopic techniques revealed the successful fabrication of Ag+-deposited MoS2 QDs and the ALP-mediated formation of AgNPs on the MoS2 QD surface. The linear quantification ranges for ALP were 0.05-2.5, 0.1-4, and 1-4 units L-1 in the fluorescent, colorimetric, and fluorescence-lifetime detection modes, respectively. In addition, the proposed probe integrated with an ALP-linked sandwich immunoassay exhibited high sensitivity and selectivity for the fluorescence sensing of rabbit immunoglobulin G with a detection limit of 8 pg mL-1 and linear range of 25-1000 pg mL-1. The sensitivity of the probe is comparable to those of previously reported immunoassays involving ultrasensitive electrochemical detection, hydrogen evolution reactions, or electron spin resonance. The probe integrated with the sandwich assay serves as a promising platform for the detection of target proteins in clinical samples.

Ultrasound-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction coupled with field-amplified capillary electrophoresis for sensitive and quantitative determination of fluoxetine and norfluoxetine enantiomers in biological fluids.

A rapid, simple, and sensitive technique for the quantitative detection of fluoxetine and norfluoxetine enantiomers in biological fluids was developed based on the combination of field-amplified sample stacking (FASS)-related capillary electrophoresis (CE) with ultrasound-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (UA-DLLME). The extraction efficiency of UA-DLLME was strongly related to extraction time, salt concentration, type of extraction and dispersion solvents, and volume of extraction and dispersion solvents. The extracted fluoxetine and norfluoxetine enantiomers in a mixture of 50% methanol and 50% deionized water were efficiently stacked using FASS and then separated using cyclodextrin-modified CE. Under optimal conditions of FASS (chiral selector, 3 mM trimethyl-ß-cyclodextrin; and background electrolyte, 100 mM phosphate buffer) and UA-DLLME (extraction solvent, 200 µL of acetone; and dispersed solvent, 50 µL of C2H2Cl4 in 1 mL of the sample solution), the obtained enrichment factors of fluoxetine and norfluoxetine enantiomers reached approximately 2000. The linear ranges for the quantification of fluoxetine and norfluoxetine enantiomers were 0.3-150 and 0.6-150 nM, respectively. The relative standard deviations in peak areas and migration time for four analytes were less than 3.3% and 6.3%, respectively. The proposed system provided limits of detection (signal-to-noise ratio of 3) for four analytes corresponding to 0.1 nM. The precision and accuracy for urine and serum samples were less than 6.8 and 8.3%, respectively. These findings suggested that the proposed system exhibited a high potential for the reliable determination of fluoxetine and norfluoxetine enantiomers in clinical samples. Graphical abstract.

Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction combined with acetonitrile stacking through capillary electrophoresis for the determination of three selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor drugs in body fluids.

Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction was combined with acetonitrile stacking in capillary electrophoresis for the identification of three selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (citalopram, fluoxetine, and fluvoxamine) in human fluids such as urine and plasma. Parameters that affect the extraction and stacking efficiency, such as the type and volume of the extraction and disperser solvent, extraction time, salt addition for dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, and sample matrices, pH, and concentration of the separation buffer for stacking, were investigated and optimized. Under optimum conditions, the enrichment factors were in the range of 1195-1441. Limits of detection ranged from 1.4 to 1.7 nM for the target analytes. Calibration graphs displayed satisfied linearity with R2 greater than or equal to 0.9978, and relative standard deviations of the peak area analysis were in the range of 2.9-5.0% (n = 3). The recoveries of all tricyclic antidepressant drugs from urine and plasma were in the range of 77-117 and 79-106%, respectively. The findings of this study show that dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction acetonitrile-stacking capillary electrophoresis is a rapid and convenient method for identifying tricyclic antidepressant drugs in urine and plasma.

Sensitive detection of piperazinyl phenothiazine drugs by field-amplified sample stacking in capillary electrophoresis with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction.

A rapid, simple and sensitive method for the detection of piperazinyl phenothiazine drugs using dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) combined with field-amplified sample stacking (FASS) in CE was developed. Sensitivity parameters that affect the extraction and FASS efficiency, such as the type and volume of disperser solvent, extraction time, addition of salt, and efficiency of FASS, were investigated and optimized. Note that the conductivity ratio between BGE and sample zone was measured to be 2300. Under optimal extraction and stacking conditions, the calibration curve, which ranged from 0.3 to 160 ng/mL, demonstrated good linearity with a correlation coefficient r≧ 0.9900. The LODs of prochlorperazine (Pcp), trifluoperazine (Tfp), perphenazine (Ppa), and fluphenazine (Fpa) at an S/N of 3 were 0.1, 0.1, 0.07, and 0.08 ng/mL, respectively. An approximately 1000-fold to 2500-fold improvement in sensitivity was achieved for the four tested analytes compared to conventional CZE without DLLME. The recoveries of all phenothiazines in urine and plasma ranged from 85.7 to 107.6% and 95.6 to 105.4%, respectively. The proposed method was demonstrated to be a rapid and convenient method for the determination of four piperazinyl phenothiazine drugs in human urine and plasma.

Ultrasensitive enantiomeric barbiturate analysis in body fluids through capillary electrophoresis with large volume sample stacking and ultrasound assisted dispersive liquid liquid microextraction.

A rapid, straightforward, and sensitive approach to quantifying enantiomeric barbiturates in serum was developed by integrating ultrasound-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (UA-DLLME) with large-volume sample stacking (LVSS) in capillary electrophoresis (CE). UA-DLLME was employed for sample preparation, and on-column preconcentration by using LVSS with polarity switching was implemented to enhance sensitivity. We thoroughly investigated and optimized various parameters influencing extraction and stacking to achieve optimal detection performance with the highest enrichment efficiencies. Under optimal extraction conditions (injection of a mixed solution containing 40 µL of CHCl3 and 200 µL of tetrahydrofuran into 1 mL of a sample solution at pH 10.0), LVSS was performed using 600 mM Tris-boric acid (pH 9.5) containing 35 mM hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin and sodium taurodeoxycholate hydrate. A voltage of 20 kV was applied and a preinjection water plug was loaded at a height of 25 cm for 10 s. Subsequently, the sample solution was injected at a height of 25 cm for 480 s, after which a voltage of -20 kV was applied and the sample stacking was initiated. The stacking process was completed when 95 % of the separation current was attained. Under optimized conditions, the contraction folds of the four barbiturate analytes (R, S-Secobarbital, R, S-pentobarbital) were improved by approximately 6400-fold, achieving detection limits of 0.1 ng/mL. The limits of quantification for all analyte enantiomers were 0.5-50 ng/mL, demonstrating good linearity (r > 0.997). Migration times exhibited a relative standard deviation of less than 1.7 %, whereas peak areas for the four analytes exhibited a deviation of 8.7 %. Finally, the established method was effectively applied to the analysis of human serum samples.

Ultrasensitive determination of 10 phenothiazine derivatives and their enantiomers in biological fluids by capillary electrophoresis with contactless conductivity detection.

In this study, a simple, rapid, and ultrasensitive technique was developed to identify five pairs of phenothiazine drugs by using ultrasound-enhanced and surfactant-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (UESA-DLLME), field-amplified sample injection with capillary electrophoresis (FASI-CE), and capacitively coupled capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (C4D). During the CE separation process, UESA-DLLME was used for sample clean-up and offline concentration, and FASI-CE was used for the online concentration of phenothiazine enantiomers. At baseline, the five pairs of phenothiazine enantiomer drugs required 18 min for separation. UESA-DLLME was then used to extract 0.01 mM Tween 80 at pH 10 from a sample solution (extraction solvent, 100 mL of dichloromethane). Subsequently, FASI was used to stack the sample solution (buffer, 30 mM 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid/aspartic acid, additive 4 mM hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin, pH 2.5), and C4D was used for signal detection (amplitude, 2 Vpp; frequency, 400 kHz). The results indicated that the linear range for quantifying all analyte enantiomers was 1.0-150 nM, with a coefficient of determination exceeding 0.99. In addition, the relative standard deviations in the migration time and peak areas for the 10 analytes were less than 3.2% and 7.2%, respectively. The proposed system has a limit of detection (LOD) for the 10 analytes at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3, ranging from 0.24 to 0.28 nM. The sensitivity enhancement, which compares the LOD0 (limit of detection in the normal method) to LOD1 (limit of detection achieved using the proposed UESA-DLLME-FASI-CE-C4D method), varies between approximately 1200 and 2000 for the 10 analytes. Analysis of the 10 separated analytes spiked in urine and serum samples revealed recovery rates of 88%-106% and 89%-105%, respectively. Therefore, this highly sensitive advanced technique was successfully used to analyze phenothiazine enantiomers in urine and serum samples.

Ultrasensitive analysis of mirtazapine and its metabolites enantiomers in body fluids using ultrasound-enhanced and surfactant-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction followed by polymer-mediated stacking in capillary electrophoresis.

A simple, rapid, and sensitive technique for measuring mirtazapine and its metabolites enantiomers in human fluids, such as urine and serum, was developed by applying ultrasound-enhanced and surfactant-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (USA-DLLME) integrated with poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDAC)-mediated stacking in capillary electrophoresis (CE). The parameters that affect extraction and stacking performance, such as the extraction volume, surfactant types, surfactant concentrations, salt additives, extraction time, solution pH, and background electrolytes, were comprehensively studied and optimized to achieve optimal detection performance. Under optimal extraction conditions (injection of 120 µL of C2H2Cl4 into 1 mL of a sample solution containing 0.05 mM Brij-35 at pH 10.0) and separation conditions (0.9% PDDAC, 10 mM phosphate, pH 3.0, and 20 mM dimethyl-ß-cyclodextrin), on-line CE stacking of mirtazapine-related chiral drugs was achieved by the two strategies: (i) neutral DM-ß-CD sweep low concentrations of DL-NaSSA and (ii) DL-NASSA is stacked by the difference in the viscosity between the PDDAC and sample zone. An approximately 2,800-4000-fold improvement in detection sensitivity was revealed for mirtazapine, N-demethylmirtazapine, and 8-hydroxymirtazapine enantiomers. The linear ranges for the quantification of all analyte enantiomers were 1.2-150 nM, with a coefficient of determination higher than 0.99; the relative standard deviations in the migration time and peak areas for six analytes were less than 1.8% and 5.8%, respectively. The proposed system provided the limits of detection (signal-to-noise ratio of 3) of the six analytes as 0.3-0.5 nM. The recovery of the six separated analytes spiked in urine and serum samples was revealed to be 82.7%-109.5% and 91%-112.8%, respectively. This advanced technique with high sensitivity enhancement factors was successfully employed to analyze mirtazapine and its metabolites enantiomers in urine and serum samples with reliability.

Functionalized gold nanoparticles for sensing of pesticides: A review.

Pesticides are a family of non-biodegradable chemical compounds which widely used in agriculture to control pests and increase yield production. However, overuse or abuse of pesticides and their metabolites may cause potential toxicity for the environment as well as human health and all other living organisms, even at deficient concentrations. Consequently, the development of sensors for monitoring these compounds is significant. Recently, nanoparticles-based sensors have been extensively employed as a potential alternative or complementary analytical tool to conventional detection methods for pesticides. Among them, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) owing to their unique optical properties have been developed as smart sensors with high selectivity, sensitivity, simplicity, and portability. These comprehensive reviews have summarized various studies performed based on different detection strategies, i.e., colorimetric, fluorescence, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, and electrochemical, using AuNPs as sensing probes for pesticide analysis in various matrices. Additionally, the current challenges and future trends for developing novel AuNPs-based sensors for the detection of pesticides are also discussed.

Highly sensitive detection of chiral amino acids by CE based on on-line stacking techniques.

We report a novel means for chiral separation and stacking of amino acids by MEKC with LED-induced fluorescence detection. Naphthalene-2,3-dicarboxaldehyde, hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (Hp-beta-CD), SDS, and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) serve as a derivatized agent, chiral selector, pseudostationary phase, and concentrated medium, in sequence. To improve speed, resolution, and stacking efficiency, the analysis of chiral amino acids was performed under discontinuous conditions--the capillary was filled with a solution of 100 mM Tris-borate, 150 mM SDS, and 50 mM Hp-beta-CD, whereas buffer vials contain 20 mM Tris-borate, 150 mM SDS, 50 mM Hp-beta-CD, and 0.5% w/v PEO. A solution of nonionic PEO enters the capillary with the help of EOF during the separation. Through interaction of SDS micelles/Hp-beta-CD and chiral amino acid, the negatively charged complexes migrated into the PEO solution and stacked at the boundary between the sample zone and the PEO solution. Compared with normal sample injection (10 nL sample volume), a several hundred-fold sensitivity improvement for chiral amino acids was obtained under the injection of 270 nL sample volume (30% of the capillary volume). Meanwhile, the LOD at S/N of three for DL-amino acids were in the range of 0.18-0.22 nM. The proposed method has been applied for the determination of DL-leucine in urine and plasma samples.

Selective enrichment of aminothiols using polysorbate 20-capped gold nanoparticles followed by capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence.

In this article, we report a simple method for selective enrichment of aminothiols using Tween 20-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) prior to capillary electrophoresis coupled with laser-induced fluorescence (CE-LIF). Compared to citrate-capped AuNPs, Tween 20-capped AuNPs exhibit the ability to disperse in a highly saline solution and selectively extract aminothiols through the formation of Au-S bonds. After extraction and centrifugation, 1mM thioglycollic acid (TGA) was utilized to remove aminothiols that attached to the NP surfaces. After a solution of 8.0 mL aminothiols were extracted using 2x AuNPs (200 microL), the extracted aminothiols derivatized with o-phthalaldehyde at pH 12.0 were detected by CE-LIF. As a result, the limits of detection at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3 for homocysteine (HCys), glutathione (GSH), and gamma-glutamycysteine (Glu-cys) are 4013.2, 79.8, and 382.8 pM, respectively. The use of this probe provided approximately 11-, 282-, and 21-fold sensitivity improvements for HCys, GSH, and Glu-cys, respectively. A practical analysis of HCys, GSH, and Glu-cys in human urine sample has been accomplished by this present method.

Inhibition of catalytic activity of fibrinogen-stabilized gold nanoparticles via thrombin-induced inclusion of nanoparticle into fibrin: Application for thrombin sensing with more than 104-fold selectivity.

Citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) modified with thrombin-binding aptamer are often implemented for colorimetric, fluorescent, and electrochemical detection of thrombin in an aqueous solution. However, researchers have rarely explored the application of fibrinogen-modified AuNPs (F-AuNPs) for thrombin sensing. We present a simple, inexpensive, sensitive, and selective probe for colorimetric assay of thrombin through combining thrombin-induced inclusion of F-AuNPs into Fibrin and F-AuNPs-catalyzed reduction of 4-nitrophenol with an excess amount of NaBH4. Considering that fibrinogen stabilized citrate-capped AuNPs against a high-ionic-strength buffer, F-AuNPs efficiently catalyzed the NaBH4-mediated decrease of yellow 4-nitrophenol to colorless 4-aminophenol. The presence of thrombin converted fibrinogen into fibrin on the nanoparticle surface, leading to the inclusion of nanoparticles into fibrin. The formation of fibrin inhibited that the AuNPs catalyzed the NaBH4-mediated reduction of 4-nitrophenol. Consequently, the color of the solution gradually varied from colorless to yellow with increasing thrombin concentration. The proposed system was shown to be accurate in the quantification of small differences in the concentration of human thrombin over the range of 4-60 pM. The lowest detectable concentration of human thrombin by the naked eye was as low as 16 pM. We demonstrated the practical application of the proposed system in quantifying 1-15 nM human thrombin in human plasma.

Enantioseparation of phenothiazines through capillary electrophoresis with solid phase extraction and polymer based stacking.

This study developed a sensitive method involving capillary electrophoresis (CE) coupled with ultraviolet absorption for the simultaneous separation of chiral phenothiazine drugs at nanomolar concentration levels. The method consists of hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin (Hp-γ-CD) as a chiral selector and poly (diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDAC)-based CE. Five pairs of d,l-phenothiazines were baseline separated using a background electrolyte containing 0.9% PDDAC, 5 mM Hp-γ-CD, and 100 mM tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris)-formate (pH 3.0). The five pairs were successfully stacked on the basis of the difference in viscosity between the PDDAC-containing background electrolyte and the sample solution, with almost no loss of resolution. The combination of a solid-phase extraction and PDDAC-mediated CE can efficiently improve the sensitivity of the phenothiazine enantiomers. Under optimal conditions, calibration graphs displayed the linear range between 6 and 1500 nM, with relative standard deviation values lower than 3.5% (n = 5). Detection limit ranged from 2.1 to 6.3 nM for target analytes, and 607- to 1555-fold enhancement was achieved. The practicality of using the proposed method to determine five pairs of d,l-phenothiazines in urine is also validated, in which recoveries between recoveries of all phenothiazines from urine ranged from 89% to 101%.

Impact of halides on the simultaneous separation of aromatic amines and their acidic metabolites by capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced native fluorescence detection under acidic conditions.

This paper describes a simple, sensitive, efficient, and rapid method for simultaneous analysis of biologically active amines and acids by capillary electrophoresis in conjunction with laser-induced native fluorescence detection (CE-LINF) using a diode pumped solid state nanolaser at 266 nm. In order to optimize resolution of the amines that were prepared in 10.0 mM formate-Tris (FT) solutions, 10.0 mM FT solutions with and without containing halides were used to fill the capillary and reservoirs, respectively. The electrophoretic mobilities of tryptamine (TA) and serotonin (5-HT) at pH 4.0 decrease with the increase in halide concentration (0-10.0 mM). Taken together with a great effect of iodide than other halides, we suggest that the formation of ion pairs is a main contributor for altering the migration of the amines. In order to simultaneously analyze the amines and their metabolites (acids) at low pH, a high bulk EOF is required. The analysis of 10 anlytes including amines and acids was completed within 12 min by CE-LINF using a capillary treated with 0.5M NaOH and then filled with 10.0 mM FT solutions (pH 4.0) containing 10.0 mM KCl prior to analysis. The limits of detection for TA and 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA) are 0.12 and 6.0 nM, respectively. The present method has been further validated by analyzing urine samples, with an RSD less than 3.1% (migration times) and 3.9% (concentration).

Recent Advances in the Determination of Pesticides in Environmental Samples by Capillary Electrophoresis.

Nowadays, owing to the increasing population and the attempts to satisfy its needs, pesticides are widely applied to control the quantity and quality of agricultural products. However, the presence of pesticide residues and their metabolites in environmental samples is hazardous to the health of humans and all other living organisms. Thus, monitoring these compounds is extremely important to ensure that only permitted levels of pesticide are consumed. To this end, fast, reliable, and environmentally friendly methods that can accurately analyze dilute, complex samples containing both parent substances and their metabolites are required. Focusing primarily on research published since 2010, this review summarizes the use of various sample pretreatment techniques to extract pesticides from various matrices, combined with on-line preconcentration strategies for sensitivity improvement, and subsequent capillary electrophoresis analysis.

Photosynthesis of gold nanoparticles in presence of proteins.

This paper describes the photosynthesis of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA). The concentration of NaAuCl4 and the relative ratio of NaAuCl4 to BSA are important parameters for controlling the size of the GNPs. We prepared GNPs having average diameters ranging from 7 to 50 nm by illumination (Hg-Xe lamp) of phosphate-buffered solutions (pH 3.0-11.0) containing 1 mM NaAuCl4 and 10 microM BSA for 9 h. The size distribution of the GNPs synthesized at pH 7.0 is narrower relative to that of those prepared at other values of pH. Based on the observation that there are no GNPs formed at 25 degrees C in the absence of either BSA or illumination, we conclude that photolytic reduction is the main mechanism for the formation of the GNPs and that BSA acts as a capping agent to stabilize the as-synthesized GNPs. In addition to BSA, several other proteins, such as beta-casein, conalbumin, hemoglobin, beta-lactoglobulin, lysozyme, myoglobin, ovalbumin, pepsin, and trypsinogen play the same role.

Combination of poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) and hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin for high-speed enantioseparation of phenothiazines by capillary electrophoresis.

High-speed capillary electrophoresis (CE) enables the simple, rapid, and inexpensive analysis of large sets of chiral samples in the pharmaceutical industry. Hence, we developed a novel method for separating enantiomers of d,L-phenothiazines simply and rapidly, based on using poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDAC) as an additive and hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin (Hp-γ-CD) as a chiral selector in capillary electrophoresis. Adding 0.9% PDDAC to the background electrolyte generated a stable, high, and reversed electroosmotic flow (EOF). Hp-γ-CD not only worked as a complexing agent to increase the chiral resolution between d,L-phenothiazines but also decreased the effective electrophoretic mobility of these drugs. Combining PDDAC and Hp-γ-CD as buffer additives enabled CE to achieve a high-speed enantioseparation of five pairs of d,L-phenothiazines. A decrease in capillary length and an increase in the intensity of the electric field further shortened the separation time. When the background electrolyte contained 0.9% PDDAC, 5mM Hp-γ-CD, and 75 mM formic acid (pH 3.0), enantioseparation of the d,L-phenothiazines was attained within 230 s by applying a capillary length of 32.5 cm and an electric field of 292 V cm(-1). The limit of detection (LOD) of the d,L-phenothiazines at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3 ranged from 2 to 8 µM. We demonstrated the feasibility of this method by detecting the five pairs of d,L-phenothiazines in urine samples.

Separation of amino acids by capillary electrophoresis with light-emitting diode-induced fluorescence in the presence of electroosmotic flow.

In this chapter, we describe a method to identify amino acids (AA) by capillary electrophoresis in conjunction with light-emitting diode-induced fluorescence (LEDIF). First, amino acids labeled with naphthalene-2,3-dicarboxaldehyde (NDA) in the presence of cyanide are converted to highly fluorescent cyanobenz[f]isoindole (CBI) derivatives. Next, they are separated by gel electrophoresis in the presence of EOF. In the process, the CBI products were excited by a violet LED to produce green fluorescence. In addition to the optical setup of light-emitting diode-induced fluorescence, the preparation of poly(ethylene) oxide for amino acid separation is also described in this chapter.

On-line sample preconcentration by sweeping and poly(ethylene oxide)-mediated stacking for simultaneous analysis of nine pairs of amino acid enantiomers in capillary electrophoresis.

This study proposes a sensitive method for the simultaneous separation and concentration of 9 pairs of amino acid enantiomers by combining poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based stacking, ß-cyclodextrin (ß-CD)-mediated micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC), and 9-fluoroenylmethyl chloroformate (FMOC) derivatization. The 9 pairs of FMOC-derivatized amino acid enantiomers were baseline separated using a discontinuous system, and the buffer vials contained a solution of 150 mM Tris-borate (TB), 12.5% (v/v) isopropanol (IPA), 0.5% (w/v) PEO, 35 mM sodium taurodeoxycholate (STDC), and 35 mM ß-CD, and the capillary was filled with a solution of 1.5 M TB, 12.5% (v/v) IPA, 35 mM STDC, and 35 mM ß-CD. Based on the difference in viscosity between the sample zone and PEO solution and because of the STDC sweeping, the discontinuous system effectively stacked 670 nL of the 9 pairs of FMOC-derivatized amino acid enantiomers without losing chiral resolution. Consequently, the limits of detection for the 9 pairs of FMOC-derivatized amino acid enantiomers were reduced to 40-60 nM. This method was successfully used to determine d-Tryptophan (Trp), l-Trp, d-Phenylalanine (Phe), l-Phe, d-Glutamic acid (Glu), and l-Glu in various types of beers.

Sensitive determination of sertraline by capillary electrophoresis with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and field-amplified sample stacking.

A novel method for the determination of sertraline using dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) coupled with capillary electrophoresis (CE) was developed. Acetone and dichloromethane were used as the disperser solvent and extraction solvent, respectively. A mixture of the extraction and disperser solvents was rapidly injected into a 1.0 mL aqueous sample to form a cloudy solution. After the extraction, sertraline was analyzed using CE that was equipped with UV detection. A 74-fold improvement in the sensitivity was observed when DLLME was used to extract sertraline. Since the DLLME extract residue was redissolved with 5 µL of water that contained 20% methanol, the detection sensitivity was further enhanced through the use of field-amplified sample stacking (FASS). A 11-fold improvement in the sensitivity was obtained when FASS was used to on-line concentrate sertraline. Under optimal extraction and stacking conditions, the calibration curve, which ranged from 0.01 to 1 µM was observed to be linear. The limit of detection (LOD) at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3 was 2.5 nM for sertraline. An approximately 814-fold improvement in the sensitivity was observed for sertraline compare with injection of standard solution without the DLLME and FASS procedures. This developed method was successfully applied to the determination of sertraline in human urine samples.