Feasibility and acceptability of implementing an evidence-based ESCALATION system for paediatric clinical deterioration.

BACKGROUND: The ESCALATION system is a novel paediatric Early Warning System that incorporates family involvement and sepsis recognition. This study aimed to assess the feasibility and iteratively refine the ESCALATION system in a variety of hospital settings in preparation for full-service implementation. METHODS: A series of four multi-methods studies using an Implementation Science and co-design approach were conducted. We examined concepts of implementation, context, and mechanisms of action across a variety of hospitals. Data collected included practice and chart audits, surveys (health professionals), interviews (families) and focus groups (health professionals). Quantitative data were analysed descriptively with qualitative findings assessed by content analysis or thematic analysis. RESULTS: There were 650 audits (Study I-IV), 205 health professional survey responses (Study I), 154 health professionals participated in focus groups (Study II-IV), 13 parents of hospitalised children interviewed (Study I), and 107 parents reported their involvement in the ESCALATION system (Study III-IV). Each of the studies further refined and confirmed the feasibility, specifically the components of family involvement and the sepsis recognition pathway. CONCLUSION: The Implementation Science evaluation of the ESCALATION system resulted in a uniform approach that was feasible and acceptable to users and appropriate for full-service implementation. IMPACT: This series of four studies used a co-production approach built on the Medical Research Council framework to understand feasibility and acceptability of an intervention to improve recognition and response to clinical deterioration in children to the point of full-service implementation. We have reported a detailed, systematic approach to assessing feasibility and acceptability of a complex intervention using established methodologies for whole of health system implementation. The ESCALATION System is an evidence based paediatric early warning system that is a highly refined, well accepted and accommodates a health system that has substantial contextual variation.

Aboriginal perspectives on recognising clinical deterioration in their child and communicating concerns to clinicians.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: To explore the perspectives of family members of Aboriginal children about a) their involvement in recognising clinical deterioration in a hospital setting and b) the effectiveness of a poster designed to promote family involvement. BACKGROUND: To assist in the early recognition and response to clinical deterioration for hospitalised children, many escalation of care processes now include family involvement. Little is currently known about the perspectives of Australian Aboriginal families in recognising deterioration in their child and raising the alarm, or if current escalation of care systems meet the needs of Aboriginal families. DESIGN: Qualitative pragmatist approach using semi-structured interviews. METHODS: Seven interviews were conducted with five mothers and two grandmothers of Aboriginal children who were inpatients at a children's hospital. Thematic analysis was undertaken. FINDINGS: Two themes were identified: Theme one was: Family role in recognising and responding to clinical deterioration, with two subthemes of knowing when to worry and communicating concerns. Participants reported that some families needed more knowledge to recognise clinical deterioration. Communication barriers between families and clinicians were identified. Theme two was: Effective visual communication with three subthemes of linguistic clarity, visual appeal and content. CONCLUSIONS: Additional strategies are needed to promote effective communication between clinicians and families of Aboriginal children in hospital. Posters were considered effective, particularly if including a cultural connection, images and simplified language. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: These insights provide important information for health professionals and health service managers to be aware that additional communication strategies are required to support Aboriginal family involvement in recognising clinical deterioration and escalation of care.

Development of an evidence-based ESCALATION system for recognition and response to paediatric clinical deterioration.

AIM: The aim of this study was to develop an evidence-based paediatric early warning system for infants and children that takes into consideration a variety of paediatric healthcare contexts and addresses barriers to escalation of care. METHODS: A three-stage intervention development framework consisted of Stage 1: evidence review, benchmarking, stakeholder (health professionals, decision-makers, and health consumers) engagement, and consultation; Stage 2: planning and coproduction by the researchers and stakeholders using action research cycles; and Stage 3: prototyping and testing. RESULTS: A prototype evidence-based system incorporated human factor principles, used a structured approach to patient assessment, promoted situational awareness, and included family as well as clinician concern. Family involvement in detecting changes in their child's condition was supported by posters and flyers codesigned with health consumers. Five age-specific observation and response charts included 10 weighted variables and one unweighted variable (temperature) to convey a composite early warning score. The escalation pathway was supported by a targeted communication framework (iSoBAR NOW). CONCLUSION: The development process resulted in an agreed uniform ESCALATION system incorporating a whole-system approach to promote critical thinking, situational awareness for the early recognition of paediatric clinical deterioration as well as timely and effective escalation of care. Incorporating family involvement was a novel component of the system.

Nurse resilience for clinical practice: An integrative review.

AIM: To evaluate and synthesize research that has investigated nurse resilience, to develop an understanding of what nurses' feel affects their resilience, their experiences and how resilience can impact individual nurses, patients and employers. DESIGN: Integrative review. DATA SOURCES: CINAHL, MEDLINE and PsycINFO, searched from the date each database was available to July 2019. REVIEW METHODS: Primary research studies explicitly investigating resilience in any type of licensed nurse were eligible for inclusion. Studies were critically appraised for methodological quality using the Joanna Briggs Institute Quality Appraisal Framework. Data from each study were abstracted, coded and themes were identified according to the review aims and key findings of each study. RESULTS: Twenty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Eight sub-themes and three main themes were identified: The Resilient Nurse, Nurses' Experiences of Resilience and Employment Conditions and Nurse Resilience. CONCLUSION: Nurse resilience is a complex and dynamic process, and high levels of resilience are associated with reduced psychological harm and increased well-being. Attempts to determine the characteristics of the resilient nurse have been inconclusive and research has predominately focussed on individual factors which could affect resilience, with minimal research exploring external factors which affect nurse resilience including work environment and conditions. Nursing work was characterized by adversity and nurses described the development and use of strategies to maintain their resilience. IMPACT: This review found that individual factors have received most attention in research investigating nurse resilience. Findings suggest that nurse resilience protects against negative psychological outcomes and nurses independently develop and use strategies to manage adversity. Factors in the workplace which affect resilience are under-researched, and addressing this gap could assist with the development of comprehensive interventions and policies to build and maintain nurse resilience.

The impact of organisational values on nurse resilience: A mixed-methods study.

AIM: To investigate the impact of organisational values on nurse resilience. BACKGROUND: Nurses encounter significant occupational adversity, which can result in negative psychological consequences. Investigating the role of resilience as a protective factor focuses on what enables some nurses to positively adapt in challenging work environments. Comparatively, little attention has been paid to organisational factors and nurse resilience. METHOD: A two-phase mixed-methods design comprising a cross-sectional survey and focus groups. RESULTS: Three hundred and ninety-four nurses responded to the survey with 25 participating in four follow-up focus groups. Significant associations were found between resilience levels and agreement with organisational values (p = .022) and agreement about the importance of values (p = .018). Three themes relating to organisational values were identified: pressures and challenges; supports and strategies; and impact of organisational values. CONCLUSIONS: Organisational values may positively impact resilience if nurses concur with those values and believe they are shared by their employer. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING MANAGEMENT: To promote nurse resilience, organisations and nurse leaders should consider developing, implementing and operating with a set of employee-adopted values, which need to be demonstrably upheld across the organisation.

Parent escalation of care for the deteriorating child in hospital: A health-care improvement study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the implementation of an intervention for parents to escalate care if concerned about their child's clinical condition. DESIGN: Mixed-methods health-care improvement approach guided by the Theoretical Domains Framework. METHODS: Implementation of the 'Calling for Help' (C4H) intervention was informed by previously identified barriers and facilitators. Evaluation involved audit, review of clinical deterioration incidents, interviews and focus groups. SETTING: Australian specialist paediatric hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Convenience sample of 75 parents from inpatient areas during the audit, interviews with ten parents who had expressed concern about their child's clinical condition; five focus groups with 35 ward nurses. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Parent awareness and utilization of C4H, parent and nurse views of factors influencing implementation. RESULTS: Parent awareness of C4H improved to 35% (25/75). Parent concern was documented prior to 21/174 (12%) clinical deterioration events. All interviewed parents and nurses who participated in focus groups were positive about C4H. Parents preferred to be informed about C4H by nurses, but nurses described this as time-consuming and selectively chose parents who they believed would benefit most. Parents and nurses described frustrations with and trepidation in escalating care. Nurses had used C4H to expedite urgent medical review. CONCLUSIONS: There was an improvement in the level of parent awareness of C4H, which was viewed positively by parents and nurses alike. To achieve a high level of parent awareness in a sustainable way, a multifaceted approach is required. Further strategies will be required for parents to feel confident enough to use C4H and to address interprofessional communication barriers.

The Perth Surgical Wound Dehiscence Risk Assessment Tool (PSWDRAT): development and prospective validation in the clinical setting.

OBJECTIVE: The worldwide volume of surgery today is considerable and postoperative wound healing plays a significant part in facilitating a patient's recovery and rehabilitation. While contemporary surgical procedures are relatively safe, complications such as surgical wound dehiscence (SWD) or breakdown of the incision site may occur despite advances in surgical techniques, infection control practices and wound care. SWD impacts on patient mortality and morbidity and significantly contributes to prolonged hospital stay. Preoperative identification of patients at risk of SWD may be valuable in reducing the risk of postoperative wound complications. METHOD: A three-phase study was undertaken to determine risk factors associated with SWD, develop a preoperative patient risk assessment tool and to prospectively validate the tool in a clinical setting. Phases 1 and 2 were retrospective case control studies. Phase 1 determined variables associated with SWD and these informed the development of a risk assessment tool. Univariate analysis and multiple logistic regression were applied to identify predictors of surgical risk. Phase 2 used the receiver operator curve statistic to determine the predictive power of the tool. Phase 3 involved a prospective consecutive case series validation to test the inter-rater reliability and predictive power of the tool. RESULTS: In addition to those already identified in the literature, one independent risk predictor for SWD was identified: previous surgery in the same anatomical location (p<0.001, odds ratio [OR] 4). Multiple combined factors were integrated into the tool and included: age (p<0.019, OR 3), diabetes (p<0.624, OR 2), obesity (p<0.94, OR 1.4), smoking (p<0.387, OR 2), cardiovascular disease (p<0.381 OR 3) and peripheral arterial disease (p<0.501, OR 3). The predictive power of the tool yielded 71% in a combined data sample. CONCLUSION: Patients with previous surgery in the same anatomical location were four times more likely to incur a dehiscence. Identification of at-risk patients for complications postoperatively is integral to reducing SWD occurrence and improving health-related outcomes following surgery.

Barriers and facilitators to implementing a process to enable parent escalation of care for the deteriorating child in hospital.

OBJECTIVE: To identify barriers and facilitators to implementing a parent escalation of care process: Calling for Help (C4H). DESIGN: Audits, semi-structured interviews and focus groups guided by the Theoretical Domains Framework. SETTING: Australian paediatric hospital where a parent escalation of care process was introduced in the previous 6 months. PARTICIPANTS: Four children, 13 parents, 91 nurses and doctors including Medical Emergency Team (MET) members. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Parent awareness and involvement in escalating care and factors impacting implementation of C4H. RESULTS: Two audits identified low level of parent awareness (16/88, 19% and 5/85, 6%). Parent involvement in escalation of care was documented in 11/62 (18%) events. The main facilitators included uniformly positive views that C4H was in the child's best interest, acknowledgement that parents had skills to recognize deterioration and would take action. C4H was considered to add to patient safety and being reviewed by the MET was a patient benefit. Key barriers were the low level of awareness, doubt about parent capabilities, concern about parents' information overload, anticipated overuse of resources, staff unease about possible repercussions and anticipated difficulty for parents to question staff with potential negative effects on parent-staff relationships. Overall C4H presents a challenge to traditional hospital hierarchy and culture. CONCLUSIONS: Although there was a low level of awareness about C4H in practice, there was in-principle support for the concept. Initial strategies had primarily targeted policy change without taking into account the need for practice and organizational behaviour changes. Using a theoretical approach to identify key factors will enable a targeted approach to implementation.

Surgical wound dehiscence: a conceptual framework for patient assessment.

This paper presents a conceptual framework which outlines the risk factors associated with surgical wound dehiscence (SWD) as identified in the literature. The purpose for the development of the conceptual framework was to derive an evidence-based, informed understanding of factors associated with SWD, in order to inform a programme of research on the aetiology and potential risk factors of SWD. Incorporated within the patient-centric conceptual framework are patient related comorbidities, intraoperative and postoperative risk factors related to SWD. These are categorised as either 'mechanical' or 'physiological mechanisms' posited to influence these relationships. The use of the conceptual model for assessment of patients has particular clinical relevance for identification of risk and the management of patients in the pre-, intra- and postoperative period.

Empowering Parents of Australian Infants and Children in Hospital: Translation, Cultural Adaptation, and Validation of the EMpowerment of PArents in The Intensive Care-30-AUS Questionnaire.

OBJECTIVES: To translate, culturally adapt, and psychometrically test the EMpowerment of PArents in The Intensive Care-30 questionnaire in Australian pediatric critical care, neonatal, and pediatric ward settings. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, descriptive, multicenter study conducted in two phases; 1) translation and cultural adaptation and 2) validation of the EMpowerment of PArents in The Intensive Care-30 questionnaire. SETTINGS: Two Western Australian sites, the PICU and two pediatric wards of a children's hospital and the neonatal unit of a women's and newborn hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Parents whose baby or child was admitted to the participating wards or units with a length of hospital stay greater than 24 hours. INTERVENTION: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Phase 1: A structured 10-step translation process adhered to international principles of good practice for translation and cultural adaptation of patient-reported outcomes. Thirty parents participated in cognitive debriefing. Phase 2: A total of 328 parents responded to the EMpowerment of PArents in The Intensive Care-30-AUS questionnaire. Reliability was sufficient (Cronbach α at domain level 0.70 -0.82, for each clinical area 0.56-0.86). Congruent validity was adequate between the domains and three general satisfaction items (rs 0.38-0.69). Nondifferential validity showed no significant effect size between three patient or parent demographic characteristics and the domains (Cohen's d < 0.36). Between the different clinical areas, significant differences in responses were found in all domains. CONCLUSIONS: The translated and culturally adapted EMpowerment of PArents in The Intensive Care-30-AUS is a reliable and valid questionnaire to measure parent-reported outcomes in pediatric critical care, pediatric ward, and neonatal hospital settings. Using this questionnaire can provide a framework for a standardized quality improvement approach and identification of best practices across specialties, hospital services and for benchmarking similar health services worldwide.

Treatment of anticoagulated patients with negative pressure wound therapy.

There is a paucity of evidence surrounding the use of negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) in patients receiving anticoagulant medication. Guidelines generally recommend caution regarding the use of NPWT in anticoagulated patients in general, but areas of particular risk are frequently not highlighted. The US Food and Drug Authority (FDA) reported six mortalities between 2009 and 2011 in patients receiving NPWT. These mortalities were associated with the use of NPWT over vascular graft sites. The coagulation status of these patients was not reported. It is the authors' recommendation that guidelines regarding the use of NPWT in anticoagulated patients highlight specific clinical situations of risk, although there is insufficient evidence to support the avoidance of NPWT in anticoagulated patients in general.

The development and testing of a skin tear risk assessment tool.

The aim of the present study is to develop a reliable and valid skin tear risk assessment tool. The six characteristics identified in a previous case control study as constituting the best risk model for skin tear development were used to construct a risk assessment tool. The ability of the tool to predict skin tear development was then tested in a prospective study. Between August 2012 and September 2013, 1466 tertiary hospital patients were assessed at admission and followed up for 10 days to see if they developed a skin tear. The predictive validity of the tool was assessed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. When the tool was found not to have performed as well as hoped, secondary analyses were performed to determine whether a potentially better performing risk model could be identified. The tool was found to have high sensitivity but low specificity and therefore have inadequate predictive validity. Secondary analysis of the combined data from this and the previous case control study identified an alternative better performing risk model. The tool developed and tested in this study was found to have inadequate predictive validity. The predictive validity of an alternative, more parsimonious model now needs to be tested.

A retrospective review of fluid balance control in CRRT.

INTRODUCTION: An effect of severe acute kidney injury (AKI) is the development of oliguria and subsequent retention of fluid. Recent studies have reported an association between fluid overload and increased mortality in critically ill patients. Achieving fluid balance control through haemofiltration is an important part of dialysis dose delivery in continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT). AIMS: (1) Compare the prescribed dose with the delivered dose of dialysis and haemofiltration for CRRT. (2) Identify how interruptions and delays in treatment delivery impact on fluid balance management. METHOD: A retrospective cohort study was undertaken of daily fluid balance and fluid removal for patients who required CRRT. Each observation chart and prescription order for every treatment day was reviewed. Each patient was exposed to the same treatment mode, predilutional continuous veno-venous haemodiafiltration (CVVHDf). A comparison was made of fluid balance control delivered to the patient over 24h against the dose of fluid removal prescribed. RESULTS: The observation charts of 46 consecutive patients were reviewed for total of 288 treatment days. Median number of days patients received CRRT was 5 (range 1-31). Median circuit life was 16h (range 0-66). Fluid removal targets did not occur in 75 (26%) treatment days. Median daily fluid removal shortfall was 300mL (range 25-3800mL). Mean number of daily treatment interruptions 1.25, SD±0.49. The most frequent cause of treatment downtime was circuit clotting (45%). Mean length of treatment down time was 3.71, SD±4.36h excluding delays attributed to assessment of renal function. CONCLUSION: In over a quarter of treatment days prescribed fluid removal was not achieved. Frequency of interruptions and delays in resumption of treatment compromised fluid balance control. Daily targets for fluid removal which are not achieved contribute to fluid overload and may compromise the outcome of patients who require CRRT.

Family initiated escalation of care for the deteriorating patient in hospital: Family centred care or just "box ticking".

Family centred care is a shared belief that a child's emotional and developmental needs are best met when the health system involves the family in planning, delivery and evaluation of care. The important role that families contribute to health care outcomes is emphasised throughout the National Safety and Quality Healthcare Service (NSQHS) Standards. An emerging component is the family's contribution to Rapid Response Systems (RRS) through the early detection of patient clinical deterioration. This initiative has been driven, in part, by a number of high profile paediatric cases where it was identified that healthcare providers did not appropriately respond to families' concerns, resulting in patient deaths. This paper draws together the synergies between family centred care concepts, the NSQHS Standards, and the progress made to date in developing a family initiated process for escalating care with specific reference to paediatric acute care. A number of programs have been developed to guide implementation of family escalation of care. Measures of effectiveness of implementation have mainly focused on policy and process without first understanding barriers or facilitators through engagement with stakeholders and environmental assessment. Two recent reviews have not identified any rigorous attempts to evaluate implementation and only 11 reports are cited across these reviews to date. Evaluation of effectiveness of this complex intervention should take into account process measures of fidelity, dose and reach. There is also a need to assess the impact on families, particularly within a diverse cultural mix. An agreed definition for a paediatric RRS patient outcome measure is essential in evaluating the impact on patient safety and quality. Without this systematic evidence informed knowledge translation approach, then it would appear that progress in implementing family initiated deterioration of condition processes is more about meeting the NSQHS Standards - ticking the box - than genuine engagement with families.

Challenges during long-term follow-up of ICU patients with and without chronic disease.

INTRODUCTION: Reflecting on researchers' experiences during follow-up of patients enrolled in research may lead to improved understanding of the challenges faced in maintaining contact when patients leave hospital. AIMS: (1) Describe the challenges researchers face when following-up patients who survive ICU. (2) Identify issues that influenced our ability to follow-up patients. METHODS: This sub-study was part of a larger "case-control" study investigating the quality of life of ICU survivors with and without pre-existing chronic disease. Patients completed self-assessment QLQ and symptom assessment before hospital discharge and at six months, plus they were asked to keep a paper diary of healthcare services used. Patient contact was maintained by monthly telephone calls. Each telephone call was logged and summaries of conversations documented. Our experience of conducting the study was reviewed by the identification of common issues which arose from the follow-up of patients. RESULTS: Thirty patients with a history of chronic disease and 30 patients without underlying chronic disease were followed-up. A total of 582 telephone calls were made for 60 patients discharged from hospital of which 261 (45%) calls led to a telephone interview. Only 19 (30%) of diaries were completed and returned. We identified six challenges associated with issues that arose from the follow-up of patients. CONCLUSION: We underestimated the number of telephone calls required for follow-up after discharge. Diaries were unreliable sources of data suggesting strategies are needed to improve compliance. How patients respond to follow-up is not always predictable. Processes are needed to deal with unexpected information provided during telephone follow-up.

The Impact of Implementation of Family-Initiated Escalation of Care for the Deteriorating Patient in Hospital: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Rapid response systems incorporate concepts of early recognition of patient deterioration, prompt reporting, and response which result in escalation of patient care. The ability to initiate escalation of care is now being extended to families of hospitalized patients. RESEARCH AIMS: To identify the impact of implementation of family-initiated escalation of care for the deteriorating patient in hospital? METHODS: A systematic review of peer-reviewed publications was conducted. Databases were searched from January 2005 to May 2015 for articles reporting the implementation and evaluation of family involvement programs. Reference lists of retrieved articles were searched. RESULTS: Ten articles (all descriptive studies) reported implementation and evaluation of response systems for patients and families to trigger an alert for help; five described a triaged response; five reported systems for families to directly activate the rapid response team. Five articles reported implementation in the pediatric setting. There were a total of 426 family-initiated calls, range 0.17 to 11 per month, with no deaths reported. All calls were deemed to be appropriate and three calls resulted in intensive care unit admissions. The basis of patient- or family-initiated calls stemmed from communication or systems breakdown. The large range in frequency of calls was associated with the process implemented, the strategies used and the calling criteria (up to four). Feedback from families was positive. There appeared to be a level of staff stress associated with introducing this process. LINKING EVIDENCE TO ACTION: A variety of practice models and calling criteria were reported to either directly activate an existing rapid response team or trigger a separate response to patient- or family-initiated calls. The broader calling criteria and more comprehensive implementation strategies were associated with more patient- and family-initiated escalation of care calls. There is no systematically researched evidence to assess the value of family-initiated calls for deteriorating patients.

Development of Australian clinical practice outcome standards for graduates of critical care nurse education.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: To develop critical care nurse education practice standards. BACKGROUND: Critical care specialist education for registered nurses in Australia is provided at graduate level. Considerable variation exists across courses with no framework to guide practice outcomes or evidence supporting the level of qualification. DESIGN: An eDelphi technique involved the iterative process of a national expert panel responding to three survey rounds. METHODS: For the first round, 84 statements, organised within six domains, were developed from earlier phases of the study that included a literature review, analysis of critical care courses and input from health consumers. The panel, which represented the perspectives of four stakeholder groups, responded to two rating scales: level of importance and level of practice. RESULTS: Of 105 experts who agreed to participate, 92 (88%) completed survey round I; 85 (92%) round II; and 73 (86%) round III. Of the 98 statements, 75 were rated as having a high level of importance - median 7 (IQR 6-7); 14 were rated as having a moderate level of importance - median 6 (IQR 5-7); and nine were rated as having a low level of importance - median 4 (IQR 4-6)-6 (IQR 4-6). The majority of the panel rated graduate level of practice as 'demonstrates independently' or 'teaches or supervises others' for 80 statements. For 18 statements, there was no category selected by 50% or more of the panel. The process resulted in the development of 98 practice standards, categorised into three levels, indicating a practice outcome level by the practitioner who can independently provide nursing care for a variety of critically ill patients in most contexts, using a patient- and family-focused approach. CONCLUSION/RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: The graduate practice outcomes provide a critical care qualification definition for nursing workforce standards and can be used by course providers to achieve consistent practice outcomes.

Determining risk factors for surgical wound dehiscence: a literature review.

Postoperative wound healing plays a significant role in facilitating a patient's recovery and rehabilitation. Surgical wound dehiscence (SWD) impacts on mortality and morbidity rates and significantly contributes to prolonged hospital stays and associated psychosocial stressors on individuals and their families. A narrative review of SWD was undertaken on English-only studies between 1945 and 2012 using three electronic databases Ovid CINHAL, Ovid Medline and Pubmed. The aim of this review was to identify predisposing factors for SWD and assessment tools to assist in the identification of at-risk patients. Key findings from the included 15 papers out of a search of 1045 revealed the most common risk factors associated with SWD including obesity and wound infection, particularly in the case of abdominal surgery. There is limited reporting of variables associated with SWD across other surgical domains and a lack of risk assessment tools. Furthermore, there was a lack of clarity in the definition of SWD in the literature. This review provides an overview of the available research and provides a basis for more rigorous analysis of factors that contribute to SWD.

An analysis of Australian graduate critical care nurse education.

BACKGROUND: Preparation of specialist critical care nurses in Australia is at graduate level, although there remains considerable variation in courses offered in relation to qualification, content, assessment and outcomes. As higher education providers must now comply with the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) a study was conducted to examine existing critical care courses and graduate practice outcomes. METHODS: Twenty-two critical care courses were reviewed. Data sources included course provider, websites, course curricula and telephone interviews with course coordinators. A framework approach, was used consisting of five key stages: preliminary immersion of raw data, conceptualising a thematic framework, indexing, charting, mapping and interpretation of data. FINDINGS: Analysis revealed considerable variations in course delivery and graduate practice outcomes. Most courses used professional competency standards as a framework for course curricula and clinical assessment, with inconsistency in their translation to graduate practice outcomes. Twenty-one courses included clinical assessment at graduate certificate level with no clinical assessment conducted at master level. The expected practice outcome for fifteen courses was safe practice with graduates not expected to practice at a specialist or team leadership level. Minimum graduate practice standards were not included in three courses as an expected outcome. CONCLUSION: The AQF requires graduate nurse education to be compliant with academic outcome standards. The findings of our study indicate variations between courses and subsequent graduate practice outcomes. It is therefore timely to establish national critical care education graduate practice standards.