Defective glucose and lipid metabolism in rheumatoid arthritis is determined by chronic inflammation in metabolic tissues.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients are at increased risk of insulin resistance (IR); however, the specific mechanisms mediating this association are currently unknown. OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the inflammatory activity associated with RA accounts for the observed defective glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism in these patients. METHODS: We followed two main strategies: (i) extensive metabolic profiling of a RA cohort of 100 patients and 50 healthy control subjects and (ii) mechanistic studies carried out in both a collagen-induced arthritis mouse model and 3T3-L1 adipocytes treated with conditioned serum from RA patients. RESULTS: Following the exclusion of obese and diabetic subjects, data from RA patients demonstrated a strong link between the degree of systemic inflammation and the development of IR. These results were strengthened by the observation that induction of arthritis in mice resulted in a global inflammatory state characterized by defective carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in different tissues. Adipose tissue was most susceptible to the RA-induced metabolic alterations. These metabolic effects were confirmed in adipocytes treated with serum from RA patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that the metabolic disturbances associated with RA depend on the degree of inflammation and identify inflammation of adipose tissue as the initial target leading to IR and the associated molecular disorders of carbohydrate and lipid homeostasis. Thus, we anticipate that therapeutic strategies based on tighter control of inflammation and flares could provide promising approaches to normalize and/or prevent metabolic alterations associated with RA.

Hepatic insulin resistance both in prediabetic and diabetic patients determines postprandial lipoprotein metabolism: from the CORDIOPREV study.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Previous evidences have shown the presence of a prolonged and exaggerated postprandial response in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and its relation with an increase of cardiovascular risk. However, the response in prediabetes population has not been established. The objective was to analyze the degree of postprandial lipemia response in the CORDIOPREV clinical trial (NCT00924937) according to the diabetic status. METHODS: 1002 patients were submitted to an oral fat load test meal (OFTT) with 0.7 g fat/kg body weight [12 % saturated fatty acids (SFA), 10 % polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 43 % monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), 10 % protein and 25 % carbohydrates]. Serial blood test analyzing lipid fractions were drawn at 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 h during postprandial state. Postprandial triglycerides (TG) concentration at any point >2.5 mmol/L (220 mg/dL) has been established as undesirable response. We explored the dynamic response in 57 non-diabetic, 364 prediabetic and 581 type 2 diabetic patients. Additionally, the postprandial response was evaluated according to basal insulin resistance subgroups in patients non-diabetic and diabetic without pharmacological treatment (N = 642). RESULTS: Prevalence of undesirable postprandial TG was 35 % in non-diabetic, 48 % in prediabetic and 59 % in diabetic subgroup, respectively (p < 0.001). Interestingly, prediabetic patients displayed higher plasma TG and large triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins (TRLs-TG) postprandial response compared with those non-diabetic patients (p < 0.001 and p = 0.003 respectively). Moreover, the area under the curve (AUC) of TG and AUC of TRLs-TG was greater in the prediabetic group compared with non-diabetic patients (p < 0.001 and p < 0.005 respectively). Patients with liver insulin resistance (liver-IR) showed higher postprandial response of TG compared with those patients with muscle-IR or without any insulin-resistance respectively (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that prediabetic patients show a lower phenotypic flexibility after external aggression, such as OFTT compared with nondiabetic patients. The postprandial response increases progressively according to non-diabetic, prediabetic and type 2 diabetic state and it is higher in patients with liver insulin-resistance. To identify this subgroup of patients is important to treat more intensively in order to avoid future cardiometabolic complications.

Alarmin high-mobility group B1 (HMGB1) is regulated in human adipocytes in insulin resistance and influences insulin secretion in ß-cells.

BACKGROUND: The nuclear protein high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) can be passively released by necrotic cells or secreted actively by several cell types to regulate immune and inflammatory responses, as well as tissue remodeling. We herein aimed to characterize the effect of insulin resistance on HMGB1 in adipose tissue and to examine its potential role as a metabolic regulator in ß-pancreatic cells. DESIGN: Plasma HMGB1 concentration and adipose HMGB1 expression were assessed in relation to obesity and insulin resistance. Cultured adipocytes from lean and obese patients were used to investigate the intracellular distribution and factors regulating HMGB1 release, as well as to test its effects on adipogenesis and lipid metabolism. A regulatory role for HMGB1 in insulin secretion was also investigated. RESULTS: Circulating HMGB1 was positively associated with body mass index, while adipose HMGB1 mRNA levels correlated with the expression of inflammatory markers. Insulin resistance modified the intracellular distribution of HMGB1 in human adipocytes, with HMGB1 being predominantly nuclear in lean and obese normoglycemic individuals while localized to the cytosol in obese patients with type 2 diabetes. Adipocytes from lean individuals exposed to conditioned media from lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages induced HMGB1 redistribution to the cytoplasm and release. HMGB1 treatment had no effect on differentiation and lipid metabolism in adipocytes. However, HMGB1, whose circulating levels correlated with postload insulin concentration, increased both insulin release and intracellular Ca(2+) concentration in INS-1 cells. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show, for the first time, that HMGB1 expression and release by human adipocytes is altered by inflammatory conditions as those imposed by obesity and insulin resistance. Our data reveal a novel role for HMGB1 as a stimulatory factor of insulin secretion of ß-pancreatic cells.

Resistin regulates pituitary lipid metabolism and inflammation in vivo and in vitro.

The adipokine resistin is an insulin-antagonizing factor that also plays a regulatory role in inflammation, immunity, food intake, and gonadal function and also regulates growth hormone (GH) secretion in rat adenopituitary cells cultures with the adipokine. Although adipose tissue is the primary source of resistin, it is also expressed in other tissues, including the pituitary. The aim of this study is to investigate the possible action of resistin on the lipid metabolism in the pituitary gland in vivo (rats in two different nutritional status, fed and fast, treated with resistin on acute and a chronic way) and in vitro (adenopituitary cell cultures treated with the adipokine). Here, by a combination of in vivo and in vitro experimental models, we demonstrated that central acute and chronic administration of resistin enhance mRNA levels of the lipid metabolic enzymes which participated on lipolysis and moreover inhibiting mRNA levels of the lipid metabolic enzymes involved in lipogenesis. Taken together, our results demonstrate for the first time that resistin has a regulatory role on lipid metabolism in the pituitary gland providing a novel insight in relation to the mechanism by which this adipokine can participate in the integrated control of lipid metabolism.

The ghrelin O-acyltransferase-ghrelin system reduces TNF-α-induced apoptosis and autophagy in human visceral adipocytes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Proinflammatory and proapoptotic cytokines such as TNF-α are upregulated in human obesity. We evaluated the association between ghrelin isoforms (acylated and desacyl ghrelin) and TNF-α in obesity and obesity-associated type 2 diabetes, as well as the potential role of ghrelin in the control of apoptosis and autophagy in human adipocytes. METHODS: Plasma concentrations of the ghrelin isoforms and TNF-α were measured in 194 participants. Ghrelin and ghrelin O-acyltransferase (GOAT) levels were analysed by western-blot, immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR in 53 biopsies of human omental adipose tissue. We also determined the effect of acylated and desacyl ghrelin (10 to 1,000 pmol/l) on TNF-α-induced apoptosis and autophagy-related molecules in omental adipocytes. RESULTS: Circulating concentrations of acylated ghrelin and TNF-α were increased, whereas desacyl ghrelin levels were decreased in obesity-associated type 2 diabetes. Ghrelin and GOAT were produced in omental and subcutaneous adipose tissue. Visceral adipose tissue from obese patients with type 2 diabetes showed higher levels of GOAT, increased adipocyte apoptosis and increased expression of the autophagy-related genes ATG5, BECN1 and ATG7. In differentiating human omental adipocytes, incubation with acylated and desacyl ghrelin reduced TNF-α-induced activation of caspase-8 and caspase-3, and cell death. In addition, acylated ghrelin reduced the basal expression of the autophagy-related genes ATG5 and ATG7, while desacyl ghrelin inhibited the TNF-α-induced increase of ATG5, BECN1 and ATG7 expression. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Apoptosis and autophagy are upregulated in human visceral adipose tissue of patients with type 2 diabetes. Acylated and desacyl ghrelin reduce TNF-α-induced apoptosis and autophagy in human visceral adipocytes.

The atypical cannabinoid O-1602 stimulates food intake and adiposity in rats.

AIMS: Cannabinoids are known to control energy homeostasis. Atypical cannabinoids produce pharmacological effects via unidentified targets. We sought to investigate whether the atypical cannabinoid O-1602 controls food intake and body weight. METHODS: The rats were injected acutely or subchronically with O-1602, and the expression of several factors involved in adipocyte metabolism was assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction. In vivo findings were corroborated with in vitro studies incubating 3T3-L1 adipocytes with O-1602, and measuring intracellular calcium and lipid accumulation. Finally, as some reports suggest that O-1602 is an agonist of the putative cannabinoid receptor GPR55, we tested it in mice lacking GPR55. RESULTS: Central and peripheral administration of O-1602 acutely stimulates food intake, and chronically increases adiposity. The hyperphagic action of O-1602 is mediated by the downregulation of mRNA and protein levels of the anorexigenic neuropeptide cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript. The effects on fat mass are independent of food intake, and involve a decrease in the expression of lipolytic enzymes such as hormone sensitive lipase and adipose triglyceride lipase in white adipose tissue. Consistently, in vitro data showed that O-1602 increased the levels of intracellular calcium and lipid accumulation in adipocytes. Finally, we injected O-1602 in GPR55 -/- mice and found that O-1602 was able to induce feeding behaviour in GPR55-deficient mice. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show that O-1602 modulates food intake and adiposity independently of GPR55 receptor. Thus atypical cannabinoids may represent a novel class of molecules involved in energy balance.

The potential role of the adipokine HMGB1 in obesity and insulin resistance. Novel effects on adipose tissue biology.

Discovery of the adipose tissue as a major source of signaling molecules almost three decades ago set a novel physiological paradigm that paved the way for the identification of metabolic organs as endocrine organs. Adipocytes, the main adipose tissue cell type, do not only represent the principal site of energy storage in form of triglycerides, but also produce a variety of molecules for short and long distance intercellular communication, named adipokines, which coordinate systemic responses. Although the best known adipokines identified and characterized hitherto are leptin and adiponectin, novel adipokines are continuously being described, what have significantly helped to elucidate the role of adipocyte biology in obesity and associated comorbidities. One of these novel adipokines is high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a ubiquitous nuclear protein that has been recently reported to be dysregulated in obese dysfunctional adipocytes. Although the classical function of HMGB1 is related to inflammation and immunity, acting as an alarmin, novel advances evidence an active implication of HMGB1 in tissue remodeling and fibrosis. This review summarizes the current evidence on the mechanisms controlling HMGB1 release, as well as its role as a regulator of adipocyte function and extracellular matrix remodeling, with special emphasis on the potential of this novel adipokine as a target in the obesity treatment.

Optimization of a MALDI-Imaging protocol for studying adipose tissue-associated disorders.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) is increasingly recognized for its potential in the discovery of novel biomarkers directly from tissue sections. However, there are no MALDI IMS studies as yet on the adipose tissue, a lipid-enriched tissue that plays a pivotal role in the development of obesity-associated disorders. Herein, we aimed at developing an optimized method for analyzing adipose tissue lipid composition under both physiological and pathological conditions by MALDI IMS. Our studies showed an exacerbated lipid delocalization from adipose tissue sections when conventional strategies were applied. However, our optimized method using conductive-tape sampling and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB) as a matrix, preserved the anatomical organization and minimized lipid diffusion from sample sections. This method enabled the identification of a total of 625 down-regulated and 328 up-regulated m/z values in the adipose tissue from a rat model of extreme obesity as compared to lean animals. Combination of MALDI IMS and liquid chromatography (LC)-MS/MS data identified 44 differentially expressed lipid species between lean and obese animals, including phospholipids and sphingomyelins. Among the lipids identified, SM(d18:0_18:2), PE(P-16:0_20:0), and PC(O-16:0_16:1) showed a differential spatial distribution in the adipose tissue of lean vs. obese animals. In sum, our method provides a valuable new tool for research on adipose tissue that may pave the way for the identification of novel biomarkers of obesity and metabolic disease.

Novel expression and direct effects of adiponectin in the rat testis.

Adiponectin is an adipocyte hormone, with relevant roles in lipid metabolism and glucose homeostasis, recently involved in the control of different endocrine organs, such as the placenta, pituitary and, likely, the ovary. However, whether as described previously for other adipokines, such as leptin and resistin, adiponectin is expressed and/or conducts biological actions in the male gonad remains unexplored. In this study, we provide compelling evidence for the expression, putative hormonal regulation, and direct effects of adiponectin in the rat testis. Testicular expression of adiponectin was demonstrated along postnatal development, with a distinctive pattern of RNA transcripts and discernible protein levels that appeared mostly located at interstitial Leydig cells. Testicular levels of adiponectin mRNA were marginally regulated by pituitary gonadotropins but overtly modulated by metabolic signals, such as glucocorticoids, thyroxine, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma, whose effects were partially different from those on circulating levels of adiponectin. In addition, expression of the genes encoding adiponectin receptor (AdipoR)-1 and AdipoR2 was detected in the rat testis, with developmental changes and gonadotropin regulation for AdipoR2 mRNA, and prominent levels of AdipoR1 in seminiferous tubules. Moreover, recombinant adiponectin significantly inhibited basal and human choriogonadotropin-stimulated testosterone secretion ex vivo, whereas it failed to change relative levels of several Sertoli cell-expressed mRNAs, such as stem cell factor and anti-Müllerian hormone. In summary, our data are the first to document the expression, regulation and functional role of adiponectin in the rat testis. Taken together with its recently reported expression in the ovary and its effects on LH secretion and ovarian steroidogenesis, these results further substantiate a multifaceted role of adiponectin in the control of the reproductive axis, which might operate as endocrine integrator linking metabolism and gonadal function.

Influence of sample preparation on lipidomics analysis of polar lipids in adipose tissue.

The main limitations of lipidomics analysis are the chemical complexity of the lipids, the range of concentrations at which they exist, and the variety of samples usually analyzed. These limitations particularly affect the characterization of polar lipids owing to the interference of neutral lipids, essentially acylglycerides, which are at high concentration and suppress ionization of low concentrated lipids in mass spectrometry detection. The influence of sample preparation on lipidomics analysis of polar lipids in adipose tissue by LC-MS/MS was the aim of this research. Two common extractants used for lipids isolation, methanol:chloroform (MeOH:CHCl3) and methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), were qualitatively and quantitatively compared for the extraction of the main families of lipids. The obtained results showed that each family of lipids is influenced differently by the extractant used. However, as a general trend, the use of MTBE as extractant led to higher extraction efficiency for unsaturated fatty acids, glycerophospholipids and ceramides, while MeOH:CHCl3 favored the isolation of saturated fatty acids and plasmalogens. The implementation of a solid-phase extraction (SPE) step for selective isolation of glycerophospholipids prior to LC-MS/MS analysis was assayed to evaluate its influence on lipids detection coverage as compared to direct analysis. This step was critical to enhance the detection coverage of glycerophospholipids by removal of ionization suppression effects caused by acylglycerides.

Identification and characterization of two novel (neuro)endocrine long coiled-coil proteins.

We have identified a novel vertebrate-specific gene by applying a Differential Display method on two distinct subtypes of pituitary melanotropes showing divergent secretory phenotypes of hypo- and hypersecretion. A paralogue of this gene was also identified. The existence of a long coiled-coil domain and a C-terminal transmembrane domain in the sequences, together with the Golgi distribution of the proteins in transfected cells, suggest that they can be considered as new members of the golgin family of proteins. Both genes were primarily expressed in (neuro)endocrine tissues in vertebrates thus supporting a role for these proteins in the regulated secretory pathway.

Direct pituitary effects of kisspeptin: activation of gonadotrophs and somatotrophs and stimulation of luteinising hormone and growth hormone secretion.

Recent, compelling evidence indicates that kisspeptins, the products of KiSS-1 gene, and their receptor GPR54, represent key elements in the neuroendocrine control of reproduction, and that they act primarily by regulating gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion at the hypothalamus. Conversely, and despite earlier reports showing GPR54 expression in the pituitary, the potential physiological roles of kisspeptins at this gland have remained elusive. To clarify this issue, cultures of rat pituitary cells were used to evaluate expression of KiSS-1 and GPR54, and to monitor the ability of kisspeptin-10 to stimulate Ca(2+) responses in gonadotrophs and to elicit luteinising hormone (LH) secretion in vitro. The results obtained show that both GPR54 and KiSS-1 are expressed in the pituitary of peripubertal male and female rats. Moreover, kisspeptin-10 induced a rise in free cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in approximately 10% of male rat pituitary cells. Intriguingly, kisspeptin-responsive cells included not only gonadotrophs, in which a 62.8 +/- 16.0%[Ca(2+)](i) rise was observed, but also somatotrophs, wherein kisspeptin induced a 60.3 +/- 5.5%[Ca(2+)](i) increase. Accordingly, challenge of dispersed pituitary cells with increasing kisspeptin-10 concentrations induced dose-related LH and growth hormone (GH) secretory responses, which were nevertheless of lower magnitude than those evoked by the primary regulators GnRH and GH-releasing hormone, respectively. In particular, 10(-8) M kisspeptin caused maximal increases in LH release (218.7 +/- 23.6% and 180.4 +/- 7.2% in male and female rat pituitary cells, respectively), and also stimulated maximally GH secretion (181.9 +/- 14.9% and 260.2 +/- 15.9% in male and female rat pituitary cells, respectively). Additionally, moderate summation of kisspeptin- and GnRH-induced LH responses was observed after short-term incubation of male rat pituitary cells. In conclusion, our results provide unequivocal evidence that kisspeptins exert direct pituitary effects in peripubertal male and female rats and suggest a possible autocrine/paracrine mode of action. The precise relevance and underlying mechanisms of this potential new actions of kisspeptins (i.e. the direct modulation of gonadotrophic and somatotrophic axis at the pituitary) deserve further analysis.

[Clinical processes in a high resolution clinic of specialist outpatient clinics]. / Procesos médicos susceptibles de alta resolución en consultas ambulatorias.

OBJECTIVES: The high resolution clinic (HRC) is an outpatient care process by which treatment and diagnosis are established, recorded, and completed in a single day. The aim of this study was to assess the extent to which patients with medical conditions may benefit from a single consultation system. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A descriptive study of 795 first visit events, randomly selected as high-resolution consultations in cardiology, gastroenterology, internal medicine, and chest diseases. A discussion is presented on the percentage of patients who benefited from HRC and the complementary tests performed. RESULTS: A total of 559 (70%, 95% CI: 67-73%) of all first visits became HRCs, and 483 (61%, 95% CI: 57%-64%) required a diagnostic test that was reviewed on the same day. There were differences between medical consultations (86% in cardiology versus 44% in gastroenterology consultations, P<.001). Performing a test on the same day significantly increased the percentage of HRCs (49 versus 22%, P<.001). Ischaemic heart disease, dyspepsia, headache, and asthma were the conditions most commonly leading to HRC. The most common tests were cranial tomography, blood analysis, and ultrasound. CONCLUSIONS: Medical consultations may largely benefit from an HRC system, only requiring some organisational changes and no additional costs.

Differential expression and processing of chromogranin A and secretogranin II in relation to the secretory status of endocrine cells.

Chromogranin A (CgA) and secretogranin II (SgII) are neuroendocrine secretory proteins that participate in regulation of the secretory pathway and also serve as precursors of biologically active peptides. To investigate whether there is a relationship between the expression, distribution, and processing of CgA and SgII and the degree of secretory activity, we employed two melanotrope subpopulations of the pituitary intermediate lobe that exhibit opposite secretory phenotypes. Thus, although one of the melanotrope subtypes shows high secretory activity, the other exhibits characteristics of a hormone storage phenotype. Our data show that SgII expression levels were higher in secretory melanotropes, whereas CgA expression showed similar rates in both cell subsets. The use of various antibodies revealed the presence of the unprocessed proteins as well as three CgA-derived peptides (67, 45, and 30 kDa) and six SgII-derived peptides (81, 66, 55, 37, 32, and 30 kDa) in both subpopulations. However, the smallest molecular forms of both granins predominated in secretory melanotropes, whereas the largest SgII- and CgA-immunoreactive peptides were more abundant in storage melanotropes, which is suggestive of a more extensive processing of granins in the secretory subset. Confocal microscopy studies showed that CgA immunoreactivity was higher in storage cells, but SgII immunoreactivity was higher in secretory melanotropes. Taken together, our results indicate that SgII and CgA are differentially regulated in melanotrope subpopulations. Thus, SgII expression is strongly related to the secretory activity of melanotrope cells, whereas CgA expression may not be related to secretory rate, but, rather, to hormone storage in this endocrine cell type.

Cortistatin mimics somatostatin by inducing a dual, dose-dependent stimulatory and inhibitory effect on growth hormone secretion in somatotropes.

Cortistatin is a recently discovered neuropeptide that is structurally related to somatostatin, the classic inhibitor of growth hormone (GH) release. Cortistatin binds with high affinity to all five somatostatin receptors (sst1-5), and, like somatostatin, cortistatin inhibits in vivo GH release in man and rats. In this report, we compared the in vitro actions of cortistatin and somatostatin using primary pig pituitary cell cultures. In this species, we have previously reported that somatostatin not only inhibits GH-releasing hormone (GHRH)-stimulated GH release at high doses, but also stimulates basal GH release at low (pM) doses, a dual response that is markedly dependent on the subpopulation of pituitary somatotropes examined. Results reported herein demonstrate that cortistatin closely mimics the dose-dependent inhibitory and stimulatory effects of somatostatin on GH secretion. As cortistatin, unlike somatostatin, binds to the human receptor for ghrelin/GH secretagogs (GHS-R), we also investigated whether cortistatin stimulates GH release through this receptor by using a synthetic, short form of cortistatin, cortistatin-8 (CST8), which lacks the sst-binding capacity of full-length cortistatin but retains its GHS-R-binding capacity. Interestingly, CST8 stimulated GH release only at low doses (10(-15) M), and did not reduce GH secretion stimulated by GHRH, ghrelin, or low-dose, full-length cortistatin, yet it counteracted that induced by a nonpeptidyl GHS, L-163 255. Taken together, our results indicate that the dual, inhibitory and stimulatory effects of cortistatin on GH release closely parallel those of somatostatin and are probably mediated by the same receptor(s) and signaling pathway(s) for both peptides. Furthermore, they suggest that the pathway(s) activated by cortistatin (and somatostatin) to stimulate GH release are not initiated by GHS-R activation.

Gonadotropin-secreting cells in ovariectomized rats treated with different oestrogen receptor ligands: a modulatory role for ERbeta in the gonadotrope?

In the rat, oestrogen is a key regulator of gonadotrophin synthesis and release through activation of oestrogen receptors (ERs). Gonadotropes express alpha and beta isoforms of ER and both can activate transcription in response to oestrogen. These experiments were aimed at evaluating the relative contribution of ERalpha and ERbeta on gonadotrope morphology, progesterone receptor (PR) expression and LH secretion. Ovariectomized rats were daily injected over 3 days with 25 microg oestradiol benzoate, 0.3 or 1.5 mg of the selective ERalpha agonist propylpyrazole triol (PPT) with or without 1.5, 3.0 or 4.5 mg of the selective ERbeta agonist diarylpropionitrile (DPN), DPN alone, and 0.3 or 3 mg of tamoxifen. Controls were given 0.2 ml oil. Serum concentration and pituitary content of LH, gonadotrope PR expression, pituitary PR content, and gonadotrope morphology were analyzed by RIA, immunohistochemistry, Western blotting and light and electron microscopy, respectively. Results showed that PPT reversed all consequences of ovariectomy, DPN mimicked the effects of PPT except for its LH-releasing action and tamoxifen had ERalpha-like responses. When combined with PPT, DPN attenuated ERalpha effects without interfering with its LH-releasing activity. Oestradiol benzoate had similar effects to those of combined PPT and DPN. It is suggested that (i) the structural reorganization of the cytoplasmic organelles provided by oestrogen, and the shrinkage of the ovariectomy-induced hypertrophy of gonadotropes, which precedes the expression of PR, are evoked by ERalpha and modulated, in a ying-yang fashion, by ERbeta; and (ii) the oestrogen-dependent exocytosis of LH, the final step in the secretory process, is dependent on ERalpha exclusively.

Ontogeny and mechanisms of action for the stimulatory effect of kisspeptin on gonadotropin-releasing hormone system of the rat.

Kisspeptins have recently emerged as essential regulators of gonadotropin secretion and puberty onset. These functions are primarily conducted by stimulation of hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion. However, relevant aspects of KiSS-1 physiology, including the ontogeny and major signaling systems of its stimulatory action, remain to be fully elucidated. To cover these issues, the effects of kisspeptin-10 on GnRH and LH secretion were monitored at early stages of postnatal maturation, and potential changes in the sensitivity to kisspeptin were assessed along the pubertal transition in the rat. In addition, the signaling cascades involved in kisspeptin-induced GnRH secretion were explored by means of pharmacological blockade using rat hypothalamic explants. Despite sexual immaturity, kisspeptin-10 potently elicited GnRH release ex vivo and LH secretion in vivo at early stages (neonatal to juvenile) of postnatal development. Yet, LH responsiveness to low doses of kisspeptin was enhanced in peri-pubertal animals. Concerning GnRH secretion, the stimulatory action of kisspeptin-10 required activation of phospholipase-C, mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ and recruitment of ERK1/2 and p38 kinases, but was preserved after blockade of type 2 cyclo-oxygenase and prostaglandin synthesis. In summary, our present data document the ontogeny, sensitivity and intracellular signals for the stimulatory action of kisspeptin on the GnRH/LH axis in the rat. Although LH responses to low doses of kisspeptin appeared to be enhanced at puberty, kisspeptin was able to readily activate the GnRH system at early stages of postnatal maturation. These observations further stress the essential role of kisspeptin in normal, and eventually pathological, timing of puberty.

Increased expression of alpha- and beta-globin mRNAs at the pituitary following exposure to estrogen during the critical period of neonatal sex differentiation in the rat.

Deterioration of reproductive health in human and wildlife species during the past decades has drawn considerable attention to the potential adverse effects of exposure to xenosteroids during sensitive periods of sex development. The hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) unit is a key element in the neuroendocrine system controlling development and function of the reproductive axis; the HP unit being highly sensitive to the organizing effects of endogenous and exogenous sex steroids. To gain knowledge on the molecular mode of action and potential biomarkers of exposure to estrogenic compounds at the HP unit, we screened for differentially expressed genes at the pituitary and hypothalamus of rats after neonatal exposure to estradiol benzoate. Our analyses identified persistent up-regulation of alpha- and beta-globin mRNAs at the pituitary following neonatal estrogenization. This finding was confirmed by combination of RT-PCR analyses and in situ hybridization. Induction of alpha- and beta-globin mRNA expression at the pituitary by neonatal exposure to estrogen was demonstrated as dose-dependent and it was persistently detected up to puberty. In contrast, durable up-regulation of alpha- and beta-globin genes was not detected at the hypothalamus, cortex, cerebellum, liver and testis. Finally, enhanced levels of alpha- and beta-globin mRNAs at the pituitary were also demonstrated after neonatal administration of the anti-androgen flutamide. In summary, alpha- and beta-globin genes may prove as sensitive, pituitary-specific biomarkers of exposure to estrogenic (and/or anti-androgenic) compounds at critical periods of sex development, whose potential in the assessment of endocrine disrupting events at the HP unit merits further investigation.