Motor Progression and Nigrostriatal Neurodegeneration in Parkinson Disease.

OBJECTIVE: The motor severity in Parkinson disease (PD) is believed to parallel dopaminergic terminal degeneration in the striatum, although the terminal was reported to be virtually absent by 4 years postdiagnosis. Meanwhile, neuromelanin-laden dopamine neuron loss in the substantia nigra (SN) elucidated a variability at early stages and gradual loss with less variability 10 years postdiagnosis. Here, we aimed to clarify the correlation between motor impairments and striatal dopaminergic terminal degeneration and nigral neuromelanin-laden dopamine neuron loss at early to advanced stages of PD. METHODS: Ninety-three PD patients were divided into early and advanced subgroups based on motor symptom duration and whether motor fluctuation was present. Striatal dopaminergic terminal degeneration was evaluated using a presynaptic dopamine transporter tracer, 123 I-ioflupane single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Nigral neuromelanin-laden dopamine neuron density was assessed by neuromelanin-sensitive magnetic resonance imaging (NM-MRI). RESULTS: In patients with early stage PD (motor symptoms for ≤8 or 10 years), motor dysfunction during the drug-off state was paralleled by a decline in 123 I-ioflupane uptake in the striatum despite the absence of a correlation with reductions in NM-MRI signals in SN. Meanwhile, in patients with advanced stage PD (motor symptoms for >8 or 10 years and with fluctuation), the degree of motor deficits during the drug-off state was not correlated with 123 I-ioflupane uptake in the striatum, despite its significant negative correlation with NM-MRI signals in SN. INTERPRETATION: We propose striatal dopaminergic terminal loss measured using 123 I-ioflupane SPECT and nigral dopamine neuron loss assessed with NM-MRI as early stage and advanced stage motor impairment biomarkers, respectively. ANN NEUROL 2022;92:110-121.

Ca2+ -Calmodulin-Calcineurin Signaling Modulates α-Synuclein Transmission.

BACKGROUND: The intercellular transmission of pathogenic proteins plays a crucial role in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Previous research has shown that the neuronal uptake of such proteins is activity-dependent; however, the detailed mechanisms underlying activity-dependent α-synuclein transmission in Parkinson's disease remain unclear. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether α-synuclein transmission is affected by Ca2+ -calmodulin-calcineurin signaling in cultured cells and mouse models of Parkinson's disease. METHODS: Mouse primary hippocampal neurons were used to examine the effects of the modulation of Ca2+ -calmodulin-calcineurin signaling on the neuronal uptake of α-synuclein preformed fibrils. The effects of modulating Ca2+ -calmodulin-calcineurin signaling on the development of α-synuclein pathology were examined using a mouse model injected with α-synuclein preformed fibrils. RESULTS: Modulation of Ca2+ -calmodulin-calcineurin signaling by inhibiting voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, calmodulin, and calcineurin blocked the neuronal uptake of α-synuclein preformed fibrils via macropinocytosis. Different subtypes of voltage-gated Ca2+ channel differentially contributed to the neuronal uptake of α-synuclein preformed fibrils. In wild-type mice inoculated with α-synuclein preformed fibrils, we found that inhibiting calcineurin ameliorated the development of α-synuclein pathology. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that Ca2+ -calmodulin-calcineurin signaling modulates α-synuclein transmission and has potential as a therapeutic target for Parkinson's disease. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Glucocerebrosidases catalyze a transgalactosylation reaction that yields a newly-identified brain sterol metabolite, galactosylated cholesterol.

ß-Glucocerebrosidase (GBA) hydrolyzes glucosylceramide (GlcCer) to generate ceramide. Previously, we demonstrated that lysosomal GBA1 and nonlysosomal GBA2 possess not only GlcCer hydrolase activity, but also transglucosylation activity to transfer the glucose residue from GlcCer to cholesterol to form ß-cholesterylglucoside (ß-GlcChol) in vitro ß-GlcChol is a member of sterylglycosides present in diverse species. How GBA1 and GBA2 mediate ß-GlcChol metabolism in the brain is unknown. Here, we purified and characterized sterylglycosides from rodent and fish brains. Although glucose is thought to be the sole carbohydrate component of sterylglycosides in vertebrates, structural analysis of rat brain sterylglycosides revealed the presence of galactosylated cholesterol (ß-GalChol), in addition to ß-GlcChol. Analyses of brain tissues from GBA2-deficient mice and GBA1- and/or GBA2-deficient Japanese rice fish (Oryzias latipes) revealed that GBA1 and GBA2 are responsible for ß-GlcChol degradation and formation, respectively, and that both GBA1 and GBA2 are responsible for ß-GalChol formation. Liquid chromatography-tandem MS revealed that ß-GlcChol and ß-GalChol are present throughout development from embryo to adult in the mouse brain. We found that ß-GalChol expression depends on galactosylceramide (GalCer), and developmental onset of ß-GalChol biosynthesis appeared to be during myelination. We also found that ß-GlcChol and ß-GalChol are secreted from neurons and glial cells in association with exosomes. In vitro enzyme assays confirmed that GBA1 and GBA2 have transgalactosylation activity to transfer the galactose residue from GalCer to cholesterol to form ß-GalChol. This is the first report of the existence of ß-GalChol in vertebrates and how ß-GlcChol and ß-GalChol are formed in the brain.

α-Synuclein BAC transgenic mice exhibit RBD-like behaviour and hyposmia: a prodromal Parkinson's disease model.

Parkinson's disease is one of the most common movement disorders and is characterized by dopaminergic cell loss and the accumulation of pathological α-synuclein, but its precise pathogenetic mechanisms remain elusive. To develop disease-modifying therapies for Parkinson's disease, an animal model that recapitulates the pathology and symptoms of the disease, especially in the prodromal stage, is indispensable. As subjects with α-synuclein gene (SNCA) multiplication as well as point mutations develop familial Parkinson's disease and a genome-wide association study in Parkinson's disease has identified SNCA as a risk gene for Parkinson's disease, the increased expression of α-synuclein is closely associated with the aetiology of Parkinson's disease. In this study we generated bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic mice harbouring SNCA and its gene expression regulatory regions in order to maintain the native expression pattern of α-synuclein. Furthermore, to enhance the pathological properties of α-synuclein, we inserted into SNCA an A53T mutation, two single-nucleotide polymorphisms identified in a genome-wide association study in Parkinson's disease and a Rep1 polymorphism, all of which are causal of familial Parkinson's disease or increase the risk of sporadic Parkinson's disease. These A53T SNCA bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic mice showed an expression pattern of human α-synuclein very similar to that of endogenous mouse α-synuclein. They expressed truncated, oligomeric and proteinase K-resistant phosphorylated forms of α-synuclein in the regions that are specifically affected in Parkinson's disease and/or dementia with Lewy bodies, including the olfactory bulb, cerebral cortex, striatum and substantia nigra. Surprisingly, these mice exhibited rapid eye movement (REM) sleep without atonia, which is a key feature of REM sleep behaviour disorder, at as early as 5 months of age. Consistent with this observation, the REM sleep-regulating neuronal populations in the lower brainstem, including the sublaterodorsal tegmental nucleus, nuclei in the ventromedial medullary reticular formation and the pedunculopontine nuclei, expressed phosphorylated α-synuclein. In addition, they also showed hyposmia at 9 months of age, which is consistent with the significant accumulation of phosphorylated α-synuclein in the olfactory bulb. The dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta degenerated, and their number was decreased in an age-dependent manner by up to 17.1% at 18 months of age compared to wild-type, although the mice did not show any related locomotor dysfunction. In conclusion, we created a novel mouse model of prodromal Parkinson's disease that showed RBD-like behaviour and hyposmia without motor symptoms.

Ubiquitin-specific protease USP36 knockdown impairs Parkin-dependent mitophagy via downregulation of Beclin-1-associated autophagy-related ATG14L.

Parkin is an ubiquitin ligase regulating mitochondrial quality control reactions, including the autophagic removal of depolarized mitochondria (mitophagy). Parkin-mediated protein ubiquitinations may be counteracted by deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs). We conducted a high-content imaging screen of Parkin translocation to depolarized mitochondria after siRNA mediated silencing of each DUB in Parkin overexpressing HeLa cells. Knockdown of the ubiquitin-specific protease USP36 led to delayed Parkin translocation while only slightly disturbing the ubiquitination of mitochondrial proteins, but final autophagic elimination of mitochondria was severely disrupted. The localization of the nucleolar USP36 was not altered during mitophagy. However, the marker for transcriptional active chromatin, histone 2B Lys120 mono-ubiquitination was found reduced in USP36-silenced cells undergoing mitophagy. We observed a reduction of the mRNA and protein levels of Beclin-1 and its associated autophagy-related key regulator ATG14L in USP36 knockdown cells. Importantly, transfection of active ATG14L into USP36-silenced cells significantly restored Parkin-dependent mitophagy. We propose USP36 as regulator for the Parkin-dependent mitophagy at least in part via the Beclin-1-ATG14L pathway.

Adherence to istradefylline in patients with Parkinson's disease: A group-based trajectory analysis.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the different patterns of adherence to istradefylline treatment is essential to identifying Parkinson's disease (PD) patients who might benefit from targeted interventions. OBJECTIVES: This descriptive study aimed to identify longitudinal istradefylline adherence patterns and to characterize factors associated with them. METHODS: We identified PD patients aged 21-99 years who initiated istradefylline treatment in a Japanese hospital administrative database. Group-based trajectory modeling was used to model the monthly proportion of days covered over time to identify distinct 360-day adherence patterns. Factors associated with each adherence pattern were assessed using univariable multinomial logistic regression models. RESULTS: Of 2088 eligible PD patients, 4 distinct adherence groups were identified: consistently high adherence (56.8%); rapidly declining adherence (25.8%); gradually declining adherence (8.5%); and gradually declining and then recovering adherence (9.0%). Compared to the consistently high adherence group, the other groups had the following characteristics associated with a likelihood of lower adherence: the rapidly declining adherence group received fewer dopamine agonists (63.8% vs. 69.4%), monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors (26.8% vs. 31.6%), and catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitors (31.6% vs. 37.0%) and had a higher prevalence of anxiety/mood disorders (29.9% vs. 24.6%); the gradually declining adherence group received fewer MAO-B inhibitors (22.5% vs. 31.6%) and amantadine (8.4% vs. 16.1%) and had a higher prevalence of mild cognitive impairment/dementia (27.0% vs. 18.8%); and the declining and then recovering adherence group had a higher prevalence of anxiety/mood disorders (34.2% vs. 24.6%). CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians should be aware of the heterogeneous patterns of adherence to istradefylline.

Frontoparietal-Striatal Network and Nucleus Basalis Modulation in Patients With Parkinson Disease and Gait Disturbance.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Neural computations underlying gait disorders in Parkinson disease (PD) are multifactorial and involve impaired expression of stereotactic locomotor patterns and compensatory recruitment of cognitive functions. This study aimed to clarify the network mechanisms of cognitive contribution to gait control and its breakdown in patients with PD. METHODS: Patients with PD were instructed to walk at a comfortable pace on a mat with pressure sensors. The characterization of cognitive-motor interplay was enhanced by using a gait with a secondary cognitive task (dual-task condition) and a gait without additional tasks (single-task condition). Participants were scanned using 3-T MRI and 123I-ioflupane SPECT. RESULTS: According to gait characteristics, cluster analysis assisted by a nonlinear dimensionality reduction technique, t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding, categorized 56 patients with PD into 3 subpopulations. The preserved gait (PG) subgroup (n = 23) showed preserved speed and variability during gait, both with and without additional cognitive load. Compared with the PG subgroup, the mildly impaired gait (MIG) subgroup (n = 16) demonstrated deteriorated gait variability with additional cognitive load and impaired speed and gait variability without additional cognitive load. The severely impaired gait (SIG) subgroup (n = 17) revealed the slowest speed and highest gait variability. In addition, group differences were found in attention/working memory and executive function domains, with the lowest performance in the SIG subgroup than in the PG and MIG subgroups. Using resting-state functional MRI, the SIG subgroup demonstrated lower functional connectivity of the left and right frontoparietal network (FPN) with the caudate than the PG subgroup did (left FPN, d = 1.21, p < 0.001; right FPN, d = 1.05, p = 0.004). Cortical thickness in the FPN and 123I-ioflupane uptake in the striatum did not differ among the 3 subgroups. By contrast, the severity of Ch4 density loss was significantly correlated with the level of functional connectivity degradation of the FPN and caudate (left FPN-caudate, r = 0.27, p = 0.04). DISCUSSION: These findings suggest that the functional connectivity of the FPN with the caudate, as mediated by the cholinergic Ch4 projection system, underlies the compensatory recruitment of attention and executive function for damaged automaticity in gait in patients with PD.

Single-dose intranasal administration of α-syn PFFs induce lewy neurite-like pathology in olfactory bulbs.

INTRODUCTION: Pathological α-synuclein (α-Syn) propagation may cause Parkinson's disease progression. We aimed to verify whether single-dose intranasal administration of α-Syn preformed fibrils (PFFs) induces α-Syn pathology in the olfactory bulb (OB). METHODS: A single dose of α-Syn PFFs was administered to the left nasal cavity of wild-type mice. The untreated right side served as a control. The α-Syn pathology of the OBs was examined up to 12 months after the injection. RESULTS: Lewy neurite-like aggregates were observed in the OB 6 and 12 months after the treatment. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that pathological α-Syn can propagate from the olfactory mucosa to the OB and reveal the potential dangers of α-Syn PFFs inhalation.

Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma: Unexpected Uptake Observed on Cardiac 123I-MIBG Scintigraphy.

ABSTRACT: A 77-year-old man with parkinsonism was referred to the department of neurology for further examination. Cardiac 123I-MIBG scintigraphy unexpectedly showed strong uptake in the left shoulder, suggestive of MIBG-avid tumors including paraganglioma. MRI revealed multiple nodules suggestive of lymphoma. A biopsy was performed, which led to the pathological diagnosis of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Cardiac MIBG scintigraphy sometimes shows unexpected findings outside the mediastinum. In addition, lymphoma should also be added to the list of differential diagnoses for MIBG-positive tumors.

Impact of Gba2 on neuronopathic Gaucher's disease and α-synuclein accumulation in medaka (Oryzias latipes).

Homozygous mutations in the lysosomal glucocerebrosidase gene, GBA1, cause Gaucher's disease (GD), while heterozygous mutations in GBA1 are a strong risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD), whose pathological hallmark is intraneuronal α-synuclein (asyn) aggregates. We previously reported that gba1 knockout (KO) medaka exhibited glucosylceramide accumulation and neuronopathic GD phenotypes, including short lifespan, the dopaminergic and noradrenergic neuronal cell loss, microglial activation, and swimming abnormality, with asyn accumulation in the brains. A recent study reported that deletion of GBA2, non-lysosomal glucocerebrosidase, in a non-neuronopathic GD mouse model rescued its phenotypes. In the present study, we generated gba2 KO medaka and examined the effect of Gba2 deletion on the phenotypes of gba1 KO medaka. The Gba2 deletion in gba1 KO medaka resulted in the exacerbation of glucosylceramide accumulation and no improvement in neuronopathic GD pathological changes, asyn accumulation, or swimming abnormalities. Meanwhile, though gba2 KO medaka did not show any apparent phenotypes, biochemical analysis revealed asyn accumulation in the brains. gba2 KO medaka showed a trend towards an increase in sphingolipids in the brains, which is one of the possible causes of asyn accumulation. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that the deletion of Gba2 does not rescue the pathological changes or behavioral abnormalities of gba1 KO medaka, and GBA2 represents a novel factor affecting asyn accumulation in the brains.

[Neuro-neutrophilic disease suspected by human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing and brain biopsy: a case report].

In a 72-year-old female, subacute right hemiplegia and aphasia appeared in late May 2011. The results of hematology, a cerebrospinal fluid test, (13)F-FDG-PET, and cephalic MRI suggested intravascular/malignant lymphoma. Brain biopsy was performed. Pathological findings did not suggest a malignant tumor. In the perivascular space, the infiltration of neutrophils or histiocytes was observed. The patient was referred to the Department of Neurology. Based on the results of various examinations, infection was ruled out, and steroid therapy was conducted. Marked improvement was achieved. Subsequently, the results of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing showed B54/Cw1. As dermal findings were absent, it was impossible to make a definitive diagnosis of neuro-Sweet disease, but the disorder was regarded as a neuro-neutrophilic disease, which is a more comprehensive entity. Few studies have reported brain tissue findings of active neuro-neutrophilic disease. We report the present case, which will contribute to future research.

[Case of ataxic sensory neuronopathy associated with Sjögren's syndrome].

A 71-year-old woman developed advanced thermal hypoalgesia, bathyesthesia, and significant sensory ataxia 1 year ago. She also had difficulty maintaining a sitting posture. Patchy and reduced thermal nociception corresponding to a dermatome was found in her four extremities and trunk. On the basis of several tests, she was diagnosed with ataxic sensory neuronopathy due to dorsal root ganglionitis associated with Sjögren's syndrome. Generally, dorsal root ganglionitis associated with Sjögren's syndrome is refractory. After treatment with simple plasmapheresis, she was able to maintain a sitting posture. Finally, her symptoms stabilized after the inclusion of oral D-penicillamine to her treatment regimen. Although the clinical course was observed for about one year, we report this case because of its valuable finding, i.e., her symptoms improved after simple plasmapheresis and oral administration of D-penicillamine.