The Red Kangaroo pericardium as a material source for the manufacture of percutaneous heart valves.

BACKGROUND: The kangaroo pericardium might be considered to be a good candidate material for use in the manufacture of the leaflets of percutaneous heart valves based upon the unique lifestyle. The diet consists of herbs, forbs and strubs. The kangaroo pericardium holds an undulated structure of collagen. MATERIAL AND METHOD: A Red Kangaroo was obtained after a traffic fatality and the pericardium was dissected. Four compasses were cut from four different sites: auricular (AUR), atrial (ATR), sternoperitoneal (SPL) and phrenopericardial (PPL). They were investigated by means of scanning electron microscopy, light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS: All the samples showed dense and wavy collagen bundles without vascularisation from both the epicardium and the parietal pericardium. The AUR and the ATR were 150±25µm thick whereas the SPL and the PPL were thinner at 120±20µm. The surface of the epicardium was smooth and glistening. The filaments of collagen were well individualized without any aggregation, but the banding was poorly defined and somewhat blurry. CONCLUSION: This detailed morphological analysis of the kangaroo pericardium illustrated a surface resistant to thrombosis and physical characteristics resistant to fatigue. The morphological characteristics of the kangaroo pericardium indicate that it represents an outstanding alternative to the current sources e.g., bovine and porcine. However, procurement of tissues from the wild raises supply and sanitary issues. Health concerns based upon sanitary uncertainty and reliability of supply of wild animals remain real problems.

Evolution of the mammalian G protein alpha subunit multigene family.

Heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins) transduce extracellular signals received by transmembrane receptors to effector proteins. The multigene family of G protein alpha subunits, which interact with receptors and effectors, exhibit a high level of sequence diversity. In mammals, 15 G alpha subunit genes can be grouped by sequence and functional similarities into four classes. We have determined the murine chromosomal locations of all 15 G alpha subunit genes using an interspecific backcross derived from crosses of C57BL/6J and Mus spretus mice. These data, in combination with mapping studies in humans, have provided insight into the events responsible for generating the genetic diversity found in the mammalian alpha subunit genes and a framework for elucidating the role of the G alpha subunits in disease.

Identification of a specialized adenylyl cyclase that may mediate odorant detection.

The mammalian olfactory system may transduce odorant information via a G protein-mediated adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) cascade. A newly discovered adenylyl cyclase, termed type III, has been cloned, and its expression was localized to olfactory neurons. The type III protein resides in the sensory neuronal cilia, which project into the nasal lumen and are accessible to airborne odorants. The enzymatic activity of the type III adenylyl cyclase appears to differ from nonsensory cyclases. The large difference seen between basal and stimulated activity for the type III enzyme could allow considerable modulation of the intracellular cAMP concentration. This property may represent one mechanism of achieving sensitivity in odorant perception.

Golf: an olfactory neuron specific-G protein involved in odorant signal transduction.

Biochemical and electrophysiological studies suggest that odorants induce responses in olfactory sensory neurons via an adenylate cyclase cascade mediated by a G protein. An olfactory-specific guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-binding protein alpha subunit has now been characterized and evidence is presented suggesting that this G protein, termed Golf, mediates olfaction. Messenger RNA that encodes Golf alpha is expressed in olfactory neuroephithelium but not in six other tissues tested. Moreover, within the olfactory epithelium, Golf alpha appears to be expressed only by the sensory neurons. Specific antisera were used to localize Golf alpha protein to the sensory apparatus of the receptor neurons. Golf alpha shares extensive amino acid identity (88 percent) with the stimulatory G protein, Gs alpha. The expression of Golf alpha in S49 cyc- kin- cells, a line deficient in endogenous stimulatory G proteins, demonstrates its capacity to stimulate adenylate cyclase in a heterologous system.

Isolation of an olfactory cDNA: similarity to retinol-binding protein suggests a role in olfaction.

Molecular cloning techniques were used to isolate and characterize a protein possibly involved in the signal transducing system in olfactory tissue of the frog Rana pipiens. A complementary DNA library was constructed with messenger RNA obtained from frog olfactory neuroepithelium. A 700-base pair complementary DNA clone encoding a protein with a molecular weight of 20,300 was identified by differential hybridization analysis with polyadenylated RNA from olfactory epithelium and nonsensory respiratory epithelium. The messenger RNA corresponding to this clone was abundant in the cells of Bowman's glands in olfactory tissue but not in respiratory epithelium nor in several other tissues. The predicted sequence of this protein is homologous to members of a family of proteins that bind and transport small molecules in serum, suggesting that this protein may also bind and transport odorants in the mucus secreted by Bowman's glands.

Molecular cloning of odorant-binding protein: member of a ligand carrier family.

Odorant-binding protein (OBP) is found in nasal epithelium, and it selectively binds odorants. Three complementary DNAs encoding rat odorant-binding protein have now been cloned and sequenced. One clone contains an open reading frame predicted to encode an 18,091-dalton protein. RNA blot analysis confirms the localization of OBP messenger RNA in the nasal epithelium. This OBP has 33 percent amino acid identity to alpha 2-microglobulin, a secreted plasma protein. Other members of an alpha 2-microglobulin superfamily bind and transport hydrophobic ligands. Thus, OBP probably binds and carries odorants within the nasal epithelium to putative olfactory receptors.

Central role of the CNGA4 channel subunit in Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent odor adaptation.

Heteromultimeric cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels play a central role in the transduction of odorant signals and subsequent adaptation. The contributions of individual subunits to native channel function in olfactory receptor neurons remain unclear. Here, we show that the targeted deletion of the mouse CNGA4 gene, which encodes a modulatory CNG subunit, results in a defect in odorant-dependent adaptation. Channels in excised membrane patches from the CNGA4 null mouse exhibited slower Ca2+-calmodulin-mediated channel desensitization. Thus, the CNGA4 subunit accelerates the Ca2+-mediated negative feedback in olfactory signaling and allows rapid adaptation in this sensory system.

Adenylyl cyclase amino acid sequence: possible channel- or transporter-like structure.

Complementary DNA's that encode an adenylyl cyclase were isolated from a bovine brain library. Most of the deduced amino acid sequence of 1134 residues is divisible into two alternating sets of hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains. Each of the two large hydrophobic domains appears to contain six transmembrane spans. Each of the two large hydrophilic domains contains a sequence that is homologous to a single cytoplasmic domain of several guanylyl cyclases; these sequences may represent nucleotide binding sites. An unexpected topographical resemblance between adenylyl cyclase and various plasma membrane channels and transporters was observed. This structural complexity suggests possible, unappreciated functions for this important enzyme.

Signaling pathways in odorant detection.

The application of molecular genetic techniques has led to the identification of olfactory-specific proteins that represent each component in a second messenger cascade. Our current understanding of signaling in the olfactory system suggests that receptor proteins of a large family, responsible in part for the specificity of the system, converge on a relatively small number of second messenger systems. The ability to express these elements in heterologous systems should allow for the reconstitution of the signaling cascade and provide insight into the specificity of ligand binding, pathway activation, and signal termination.

Sweet successes.

Mapping of the chromosomal location of genes essential for sweet and bitter taste and identification of the relevant G protein-coupled receptors reveals unanticipated complexity in taste signaling pathways. The distribution of sweet and bitter receptors suggests complete cellular segregation of these taste modalities. Sweet compounds may be distinguished through differential expression of sweet receptors. Novel heterologous expression systems to test bitter and sweet modalities now provide the tools necessary for understanding taste coding.

Preferential expression of the Drosophila rutabaga gene in mushroom bodies, neural centers for learning in insects.

Seven lines were isolated with P element insertions in the cytogenetic vicinity of the learning and memory gene, rutabaga, from an enhancer detector screen designed to mark genes preferentially expressed in mushroom bodies. Six of these lines performed poorly in learning and memory tests, and several failed to complement an existing rutabaga allele. Molecular cloning revealed that the P elements were inserted in the putative promoter of the rutabaga gene. RNA in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry demonstrated that the expression of the rutabaga gene, which encodes a Ca2+/calmodulin-responsive adenylyl cyclase, is markedly elevated in the mushroom bodies of normal flies and that the insertion elements compromised its expression in the new rutabaga mutants. The reisolation of a known learning and memory gene, but with a heretofore unknown expression pattern, strongly supports the postulate that mushroom bodies are principal sites mediating olfactory learning and memory.

The genetics of olfaction.

Our understanding of olfaction has progressed rapidly in recent years as a result of the molecular genetic approaches being used to study this sensory system in a variety of model organisms. Considerable success has been achieved in identifying proteins of the mammalian signaling system that are analogous to those present in other sensory systems. More recently, genetic selection of mutations that cause defects in olfactory function in Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans has led to the identification of additional proteins that play a role in the detection of odorants. The application of genetic, electrophysiological, and molecular analyses to olfactory function in mammals is also shedding light on the mechanisms that account for sensitivity and specificity in this system.

Chemosensation: molecular mechanisms in worms and mammals.

Communication with the environment and other animals through chemical cues is an essential process for the survival of many multicellular organisms. Specialized signal transduction pathways are employed in chemodetection and the transformation of information into the electrical signals that elicit behaviors. In organisms as diverse as mice and nematodes, similar molecules are involved in the odorant signaling pathways. Studying the mechanisms of signal transduction in these two systems using biochemical, molecular and genetic approaches has elucidated pathways for odor perception and the roles of specific proteins and second messenger molecules in the signaling cascades.

Identification of DNA recognition sequences and protein interaction domains of the multiple-Zn-finger protein Roaz.

Roaz, a rat C2H2 zinc finger protein, plays a role in the regulation of olfactory neuronal differentiation through its interaction with the Olf-1/EBF transcription factor family. An additional role for the Roaz/Olf-1/EBF heterodimeric protein is suggested by its ability to regulate gene activation at a distinct promoter lacking Olf-1/EBF-binding sites. Using an in vitro binding-site selection assay (Selex), we demonstrate that Roaz protein binds to novel inverted perfect or imperfect repeats of GCACCC separated by 2 bp. We show that Roaz is capable of binding to a canonical consensus recognition sequence with high affinity (Kd = 3 nM). Analysis of the structural requirement for protein dimerization and DNA binding by Roaz reveals the role of specific zinc finger motifs in the Roaz protein for homodimerization and heterodimerization with the Olf-1/EBF transcription factor. The DNA-binding domain of Roaz is mapped to the N-terminal 277 amino acids, containing the first seven zinc finger motifs, which confers weak monomeric binding to a single half site and a stronger dimeric binding to the inverted repeat in a binding-site-dependent manner. Full-length protein can form dimers on both the inverted repeat and direct repeat but not on a single half site. These findings support the role of the TFIIIA-type Zn fingers in both protein-protein interaction and protein-DNA interaction and suggest distinct functions for specific motifs in proteins with a large number of zinc finger structures.

Isolation and characterization of the alpha platelet-derived growth factor receptor from rat olfactory epithelium.

We have cloned and characterized a new member of the receptor tyrosine kinase family. The cDNA clone, isolated from a rat olfactory cDNA library, has considerable homology to the family of receptors that includes the colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor, the c-kit proto-oncogene, and the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptors. Analysis of DNA sequence homology, ligand-binding, and ligand-stimulated phosphorylation data suggests that this clone encodes the rat PDGF-A/B or alpha-receptor. Comparison of its sequence to those of other receptors allows us to postulate a mechanism for receptor dimerization and activation. The expression of the rat alpha-PDGF receptor in nonneuronal cells of the olfactory epithelium and in the olfactory bulb is consistent with a role for PDGF in glial cell generation.

Genes encoding components of the olfactory signal transduction cascade contain a DNA binding site that may direct neuronal expression.

Genes which mediate odorant signal transduction are expressed at high levels in neurons of the olfactory epithelium. The molecular mechanism governing the restricted expression of these genes likely involves tissue-specific DNA binding proteins which coordinately activate transcription through sequence-specific interactions with olfactory promoter regions. We have identified binding sites for the olfactory neuron-specific transcription factor, Olf-1, in the sequences surrounding the transcriptional initiation site of five olfactory neuron-specific genes. The Olf-1 binding sites described define the consensus sequence YTCCCYRGGGAR. In addition, we have identified a second binding site, the U site, in the olfactory cyclic nucleotide gated channel and type III cyclase promoters, which binds factors present in all tissue examined. These experiments support a model in which expression of Olf-1 in the sensory neurons coordinately activates a set of olfactory neuron-specific genes. Furthermore, expression of a subset of these genes may be modulated by additional binding factors.

The second messenger cascade in olfactory receptor neurons.

The molecular cloning of components involved in the cAMP second messenger cascade has allowed their biochemical characterization and revealed properties that are important for their role in sensory transduction. Recent evidence suggests inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate functions as an additional second messenger in olfactory signalling. The interaction of these two pathways may contribute to the sensitivity of the olfactory system.

The genetics of olfaction.

Our understanding of olfaction has progressed rapidly in recent years as a result of the molecular genetic approaches being used to study this sensory system in a variety of model organisms. Considerable success has been achieved in identifying proteins of the mammalian signaling system that are analogous to those present in other sensory systems. More recently, genetic selection of mutations that cause defects in olfactory function in Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans has led to the identification of additional proteins that play a role in the detection of odorants. The application of genetic, electrophysiological, and molecular analyses to olfactory function in mammals is also shedding light on the mechanisms that account for sensitivity and specificity in this system.

Targeted deletion of a cyclic nucleotide-gated channel subunit (OCNC1): biochemical and morphological consequences in adult mice.

The olfactory cyclic nucleotide-gated channel subunit 1 (OCNC1) is required for signal transduction in olfactory receptor cells. To further investigate the role of this channel in the olfactory system, the biochemical and morphological consequences of targeted disruption of OCNC1 were investigated in adult mice. Null as compared to wild-type mice had smaller olfactory bulbs, suggesting compromised development of the central target of the receptor cells. Ectopic olfactory marker protein (OMP)-stained fibers localized to the external plexiform layer reflected the relative immaturity of the olfactory bulb in the null mice. The olfactory epithelium of the knock-out mouse was thinner and showed lower expression of olfactory marker protein and growth-associated protein 43, indicating decreases in both generation and maturation of receptor cells. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in the olfactory bulb, examined as a reflection of afferent activity, was reduced in the majority of periglomerular neurons but retained in atypical or "necklace" glomeruli localized to posterior aspects of the olfactory bulb. Double label studies demonstrated that the remaining TH-immunostained neurons received their innervation from a subset of receptor cells previously shown to express a phosphodiesterase that differs from that found in most receptor cells. These data indicate that expression of OCNC1 is required for normal development of the olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb. The robust expression of TH in some periglomerular cells in the OCNC1-null mice suggests that receptor cells innervating these glomeruli may use an alternate signal transduction pathway.

Olfactory receptor neurons exist as distinct subclasses of immature and mature cells in primary culture.

The processes of neuronal differentiation and survival are key questions in neurobiology. The olfactory system possesses unique regenerative capacity, as its neurons are continually replaced throughout adulthood from a maintained population of precursor cells. Primary cultures of olfactory epithelium enriched in olfactory neurons would provide a useful model to study the processes of neurogenesis, differentiation and senescence. To determine whether immature olfactory neurons could be isolated in primary culture and to investigate the mechanisms underlying these processes, culture conditions which selectively favored the presence of immature olfactory neurons were optimized. Using low plating densities, a population of cells was identified which, by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, demonstrated messages for olfactory neuronal markers, including Golf, olfactory cyclic nucleotide-gated channel and olfactory marker protein, as well as the p75 low-affinity nerve growth factor receptor. Immunocytochemical analysis showed that these putative immature olfactory neurons possessed immunoreactivity to G(olf), neuron-specific tubulin, neural cell adhesion molecule, synaptophysin and neurofilament. These neurons were defined as olfactory receptor neuron-1 cells. Under these conditions, a separate class of rarely occurring cells with different morphology demonstrated immunoreactivity to mature markers, such as adenylyl cyclase III and olfactory marker protein. Electrophysiologically, these cells displayed properties consistent with those of acutely dissociated olfactory receptor neurons. Another class of rarer cells which represented less than 2% of cells in culture demonstrated immunoreactivity to glial fibrillary acidic protein. These cultures can serve as a model for in vitro analysis of olfactory receptor neuronal development and maintenance, and provide a potential substrate for the development of cell lines.