The neural basis of attentional alterations in prenatally protein malnourished rats.

Protein malnutrition during gestation alters brain development and produces specific behavioral and cognitive changes that persist into adulthood and increase the risks of neuropsychiatric disorders. Given evidence for the role of the prefrontal cortex in such diseases, it is significant that studies in humans and animal models have shown that prenatal protein malnutrition specifically affects functions associated with prefrontal cortex. However, the neural basis underlying these changes is unclear. In the current study, prenatally malnourished and control rats performed a sustained attention task with an unpredictable distractor, a task that depends on intact prefrontal cortical function. Radiolabeled 2-deoxyglucose was used to measure neural and brain network activity during the task. Results confirmed that adult prenatally malnourished rats were more distractible than controls and exhibited lower functional activity in prefrontal cortices. Thus, prefrontal activity was a predictor of task performance in controls but not prenatally malnourished animals. Instead, prenatally malnourished animals relied on different brain networks involving limbic structures such as the hippocampus. These results provide evidence that protein reduction during brain development has more wide-reaching effects on brain networks than previously appreciated, resulting in the formation of brain networks that may reflect compensatory responses in prenatally malnourished brains.

The enduring effect of prenatal protein malnutrition on brain anatomy, physiology and behavior.

There is increasing evidence that the maternal environment exerts enduring influences on the fetal brain. In response to certain environmental stimuli such as reduced protein content, the fetus changes the course of its brain development, which leads to specific and programed changes in brain anatomy and physiology. These alterations produce a brain with a fundamentally altered organization, which then translates to alterations in adult cognitive function. The effects on brain and behavior may be linked, such that a prenatal stimulus relays a signal to alter brain development and encourage the selection and development of brain circuits and behaviors that would be beneficial for the environment in which the animal was anticipated to emerge. At the same time, the signal would deselect behaviors unlikely to be adaptive. We draw on evidence from rodent models to suggest that the brain that develops after a reduction in protein during the prenatal phase is not uniformly dysfunctional, but simply different. This perspective has implications for the role of prenatal factors in the production and expression of behavior, and may account for the elevation of risk factors for neurological and psychiatric illnesses.

Lifespan Trajectories of White Matter Changes in Rhesus Monkeys.

Progress in neurodevelopmental brain research has been achieved through the use of animal models. Such models not only help understanding biological changes that govern brain development, maturation and aging, but are also essential for identifying possible mechanisms of neurodevelopmental and age-related chronic disorders, and to evaluate possible interventions with potential relevance to human disease. Genetic relationship of rhesus monkeys to humans makes those animals a great candidate for such models. With the typical lifespan of 25 years, they undergo cognitive maturation and aging that is similar to this observed in humans. Quantitative structural neuroimaging has been proposed as one of the candidate in vivo biomarkers for tracking white matter brain maturation and aging. While lifespan trajectories of white matter changes have been mapped in humans, such knowledge is not available for nonhuman primates. Here, we analyze and model lifespan trajectories of white matter microstructure using in vivo diffusion imaging in a sample of 44 rhesus monkeys. We report quantitative parameters (including slopes and peaks) of lifespan trajectories for 8 individual white matter tracts. We show different trajectories for cellular and extracellular microstructural imaging components that are associated with white matter maturation and aging, and discuss similarities and differences between those in humans and rhesus monkeys, the importance of our findings, and future directions for the field. Significance Statement: Quantitative structural neuroimaging has been proposed as one of the candidate in vivo biomarkers for tracking brain maturation and aging. While lifespan trajectories of structural white matter changes have been mapped in humans, such knowledge is not available for rhesus monkeys. We present here results of the analysis and modeling of the lifespan trajectories of white matter microstructure using in vivo diffusion imaging in a sample of 44 rhesus monkeys (age 4-27). We report and anatomically map lifespan changes related to cellular and extracellular microstructural components that are associated with white matter maturation and aging.

Prenatal protein level impacts homing behavior in Long-Evans rat pups.

OBJECTIVE: This study assessed the effect of varying prenatal protein levels on the development of homing behavior in rat pups. METHODS: Long-Evans rats were fed one of the four isocaloric diets containing 6% (n = 7 litters), 12% (n = 9), 18% (n = 9), or 25% (n = 10) casein prior to mating and throughout pregnancy. At birth, litters were fostered to well-nourished control mothers fed a 25% casein diet during pregnancy, and an adequate protein diet (25% casein) was provided to weaning. On postnatal days 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13, homing behaviors, including activity levels, rate of successful returns to the nest quadrant and latencies to reach the nest over a 3-minute test period were recorded from two starting positions in the home cage. Adult body and brain weights were obtained at sacrifice (postnatal day 130 or 200). RESULTS: Growth was impaired in pups whose mothers were fed a 6% or, to a lesser extent, a 12% casein diet relative to pups whose mothers were fed the 18 and 25% casein diets. The 6 and 12% prenatal protein levels resulted in lower activity levels, with the greatest reduction on postnatal day 13. However, only the 6% pups had reduced success and higher latencies in reaching the nest quadrant when compared with pups from the three other nutrition groups. Latency in reaching the nest quadrant was significantly and negatively associated with adult brain weight. DISCUSSION: Home orientation is a sensitive measure of developmental deficits associated with variations in prenatal protein levels, including levels of protein deficiency that do not lead to overt growth failure.

Methods of MRI-based structural imaging in the aging monkey.

Rhesus monkeys, whose typical lifespan can be as long as 30 years in the presence of veterinary care, undergo a cognitive decline as a function of age. While cortical neurons are largely preserved in the cerebral cortex, including primary motor and visual cortex as well as prefrontal association cortex there is marked breakdown of axonal myelin and an overall reduction in white matter predominantly in the frontal and temporal lobes. Whether the myelin breakdown is diffuse or specific to individual white matter fiber pathways is important to be known with certainty. To this end the delineation and quantification of specific frontotemporal fiber pathways within the frontal and temporal lobes is essential to determine which structures are altered and the extent to which these alterations correlate with behavioral findings. The capability of studying the living brain non-invasively with MRI opens up a new window in structural-functional and anatomic-clinical relationships allowing the integration of information derived from different scanning modalities in the same subject. For instance, for any particular voxel in the cerebrum we can obtain structural T1-, diffusion- and magnetization transfer- magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) based information. Moreover, it is thus possible to follow any observed changes longitudinally over time. These acquisitions of multidimensional data in the same individual within the same MRI experimental setting would enable the creation of a data base of integrated structural MRI-behavioral correlations for normal aging monkeys to elucidate the underlying neurobiological mechanisms of functional senescence in the aging non-human primate.

Amyloidosis increase is not attenuated by long-term calorie restriction or related to neuron density in the prefrontal cortex of extremely aged rhesus macaques.

As human lifespan increases and the population ages, diseases of aging such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) are a major cause for concern. Although calorie restriction (CR) as an intervention has been shown to increase healthspan in many species, few studies have examined the effects of CR on brain aging in primates. Using postmortem tissue from a cohort of extremely aged rhesus monkeys (22-44 years old, average age 31.8 years) from a longitudinal CR study, we measured immunohistochemically labeled amyloid beta plaques in Brodmann areas 32 and 46 of the prefrontal cortex, areas that play key roles in cognitive processing, are sensitive to aging and, in humans, are also susceptible to AD pathogenesis. We also evaluated these areas for cortical neuron loss, which has not been observed in younger cohorts of aged monkeys. We found a significant increase in plaque density with age, but this was unaffected by diet. Moreover, there was no change in neuron density with age or treatment. These data suggest that even in the oldest-old rhesus macaques, amyloid beta plaques do not lead to overt neuron loss. Hence, the rhesus macaque serves as a pragmatic animal model for normative human aging but is not a complete model of the neurodegeneration of AD. This model of aging may instead prove most useful for determining how even the oldest monkeys are protected from AD, and this information may therefore yield valuable information for clinical AD treatments.

Age-related reduction in microcolumnar structure correlates with cognitive decline in ventral but not dorsal area 46 of the rhesus monkey.

The age-related decline in cognitive function that is observed in normal aging monkeys and humans occurs without significant loss of cortical neurons. This suggests that cognitive impairment results from subtle, sub-lethal changes in the cortex. Recently, changes in the structural coherence in mini- or microcolumns without loss of neurons have been linked to loss of function. Here we use a density map method to quantify microcolumnar structure in both banks of the sulcus principalis (prefrontal cortical area 46) of 16 (ventral) and 19 (dorsal) behaviorally tested female rhesus monkeys from 6 to 33 years of age. While total neuronal density does not change with age in either of these banks, there is a significant age-related reduction in the strength of microcolumns in both regions on the order of 40%. This likely reflects a subtle but definite loss of organization in the structure of the cortical microcolumn. The reduction in strength in ventral area 46 correlates with cognitive impairments in learning and memory while the reduction in dorsal area 46 does not. This result is congruent with published data attributing cognitive functions to ventral area 46 that are similar to our particular cognitive battery which does not optimally tap cognitive functions attributed to dorsal area 46. While the exact mechanisms underlying this loss of microcolumnar organization remain to be determined, it is plausible that they reflect age-related alterations in dendritic and/or axonal organization which alter connectivity and may contribute to age-related declines in cognitive performance.

Hippocampal efferents reach widespread areas of cerebral cortex and amygdala in the rhesus monkey.

The subiculum of the primate hippocampal formation stands at the end of a polarized sequence of intrinsic hippocampal efferents and is the source of efferents to the medial frontal cortex, the caudal cingulate gyrus, and the parahippocampal area and amygdala in the temporal lobe. In addition, the subiculum sends subcortical efferents to the septum and diencephalon.

Subicular input from temporal cortex in the rhesus monkey.

The subicular cortices of the primate hippocampal formation form a physical and connectional link between the cortex of the temporal lobe and the hippocampus. Their direct connections with all classes of cortex in the temporal lobe except primary sensory cortex underscore the pivotal role of these areas in the potential interplay between the hippocampal formation and the association cortices.

Thalamic and cortical afferents differentiate anterior from posterior cingulate cortex in the monkey.

The anterior cingulate cortex receives thalamic afferents mainly from the midline and intralaminar nuclei rather than the anterior thalamic nuclei. In contrast, the posterior cingulate cortex receives afferents primarily from the anterior thalamic nuclei and from extensive cortical areas in the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes. These contrasting afferents may provide a structural basis for pain-related functions of the anterior cingulate cortex.

Mesenchymal derived exosomes enhance recovery of motor function in a monkey model of cortical injury.

BACKGROUND: Exosomes from mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are endosome-derived vesicles that have been shown to enhance functional recovery in rodent models of stroke. OBJECTIVE: Building on these findings, we tested exosomes as a treatment in monkeys with cortical injury. METHODS: After being trained on a task of fine motor function of the hand, monkeys received a cortical injury to the hand representation in primary motor cortex. Twenty-four hours later and again 14 days after injury, monkeys received exosomes or vehicle control. Recovery of motor function was followed for 12 weeks. RESULTS: Compared to monkeys that received vehicle, exosome treated monkeys returned to pre-operative grasp patterns and latency to retrieve a food reward in the first three-five weeks of recovery. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence that in monkeys exosomes delivered after cortical injury enhance recovery of motor function.

Automated identification of neurons and their locations.

Individual locations of many neuronal cell bodies (>10(4)) are needed to enable statistically significant measurements of spatial organization within the brain such as nearest-neighbour and microcolumnarity measurements. In this paper, we introduce an Automated Neuron Recognition Algorithm (ANRA) which obtains the (x, y) location of individual neurons within digitized images of Nissl-stained, 30 microm thick, frozen sections of the cerebral cortex of the Rhesus monkey. Identification of neurons within such Nissl-stained sections is inherently difficult due to the variability in neuron staining, the overlap of neurons, the presence of partial or damaged neurons at tissue surfaces, and the presence of non-neuron objects, such as glial cells, blood vessels, and random artefacts. To overcome these challenges and identify neurons, ANRA applies a combination of image segmentation and machine learning. The steps involve active contour segmentation to find outlines of potential neuron cell bodies followed by artificial neural network training using the segmentation properties (size, optical density, gyration, etc.) to distinguish between neuron and non-neuron segmentations. ANRA positively identifies 86 +/- 5% neurons with 15 +/- 8% error (mean +/- SD) on a wide range of Nissl-stained images, whereas semi-automatic methods obtain 80 +/- 7%/17 +/- 12%. A further advantage of ANRA is that it affords an unlimited increase in speed from semi-automatic methods, and is computationally efficient, with the ability to recognize approximately 100 neurons per minute using a standard personal computer. ANRA is amenable to analysis of huge photo-montages of Nissl-stained tissue, thereby opening the door to fast, efficient and quantitative analysis of vast stores of archival material that exist in laboratories and research collections around the world.

Prenatal protein malnutrition decreases KCNJ3 and 2DG activity in rat prefrontal cortex.

Prenatal protein malnutrition (PPM) in rats causes enduring changes in brain and behavior including increased cognitive rigidity and decreased inhibitory control. A preliminary gene microarray screen of PPM rat prefrontal cortex (PFC) identified alterations in KCNJ3 (GIRK1/Kir3.1), a gene important for regulating neuronal excitability. Follow-up with polymerase chain reaction and Western blot showed decreased KCNJ3 expression in the PFC, but not hippocampus or brainstem. To verify localization of the effect to the PFC, baseline regional brain activity was assessed with (14)C-2-deoxyglucose. Results showed decreased activation in the PFC but not hippocampus. Together these findings point to the unique vulnerability of the PFC to the nutritional insult during early brain development, with enduring effects in adulthood on KCNJ3 expression and baseline metabolic activity.

Neurobiological bases of age-related cognitive decline in the rhesus monkey.

The rhesus monkey offers a useful model of normal human aging because when monkeys are tested on a battery of behavioral tasks that can also be used to evaluate cognition in humans, it is found that the monkeys undergo an age-related decline in several domains of cognitive function as do humans. In monkeys these changes begin at about 20 years of age. To determine what gives rise to this cognitive decline, we have examined several parameters in the brains of monkeys. Some parameters do not change with age. Examples of this are the numbers of neurons in the neocortex and hippocampal formation, and the numbers of synapses in the hippocampal formation. Changes in other parameters can be positively correlated with chronological age; examples of this are numbers of neuritic plaques, a decrease in the numbers of neurons in the striatally projecting pars compacta of the substantia nigra, and a decrease in the thickness of layer I in primary visual cortex. But the most interesting changes are those that correlate either with cognitive decline alone, or with both cognitive decline and chronological age. Among these are a breakdown in the integrity of myelin around axons, an overall reduction in the volume of white matter in the cerebral hemispheres, thinning of layer I in area 46 of prefrontal cortex, and decreases in the cell density in cortically projecting brain stem nuclei. To date then, our studies suggest that the cognitive declines evident in the rhesus monkey may be a consequence of changes in layer I and in the integrity of myelinated axons, rather than an age-related loss of cortical neurons or synapses, as has long been assumed.

Localization of alpha 2A- and alpha 2B-adrenergic receptor subtypes in brain.

Recent studies have shown that all three subtypes of alpha2-adrenergic receptor (alpha2-AR) are found in brain. The purpose of this study was to map the subtype localization of the alpha2A- and alpha2B-ARs in brain structures. RNase protection shows that both the alpha2A- and alpha2B-ARs are detectable in cortex, cerebellum, pons-medulla, and hypothalamus. We tested probes derived from the alpha2A- and alpha2B-AR cDNAs on cell lines that express each of the alpha2-AR subtypes to establish the subtype specificity of these probes for in situ hybridization. Then we used the alpha2A- and alpha2B-AR probes for in situ hybridization on sagittal and coronal sections of rat brain. Both alpha2A and alpha2B mRNA were detected throughout the brain. Overall, there appears to be a greater expression of message for alpha2A- than alpha2B-AR in most brain areas, with the exception of the thalamus. Developing these probes for in situ hybridization is an important step for further studies on the exact role of the alpha2-AR subtypes in neurons that modulate cardiovascular function.

Effects of aging on visual recognition memory in the rhesus monkey.

As part of an effort to develop a primate model of human age-related memory dysfunction, performance by six rhesus monkeys 26 to 27 years of age was compared to that of six young adult monkeys (four to five years of age) on a trial unique delayed nonmatching to sample (DNMS) task. This task assesses the monkey's ability to identify a novel from a familiar stimulus over a delay and resembles closely clinical tests that are used to assess memory function in geriatric patients. The task was presented in three stages: acquisition, delays and lists. As a group, aged monkeys were impaired relative to the young adult group on all three conditions. However, within the aged group, individual cases of efficient performance were observed. Error analyses of item positions of the lists condition revealed the absence of enhanced performance for items presented at the end of a list by aged animals, suggesting an abnormal sensitivity to proactive interference. The finding of a recognition impairment with age is in parallel with studies of normal human aging and lends support to the notion that the rhesus monkey is a suitable animal model of human aging.

Executive system dysfunction in the aged monkey: spatial and object reversal learning.

As part of the effort to characterize age-related cognitive changes in executive system function in a nonhuman primate model of human aging, the performance of seven rhesus monkeys, 20 to 28 years of age, was compared to that of five young adult monkeys, 6 to 11 years of age, on spatial and object reversal tasks. No differences in performance were found between the two groups in the initial learning of either task. On spatial reversals, aged monkeys were impaired relative to young adults, but there was no difference in overall performance between the groups on object reversals. Central to this article, a perseverative tendency was noted in the aged group on both spatial and object reversal tasks. Changes in executive system dysfunction may represent an important aspect of age-related cognitive decline.

Recognition memory span in rhesus monkeys of advanced age.

Assessment of recognition memory was performed on eight rhesus monkeys of advanced age (25 to 27 years of age) using the delayed recognition span test (DRST). Their performance was compared to that of five young adult animals (5 to 7 years of age) on two stimulus conditions of the DRST: spatial position and color. Both trial unique and repeating series were used for each of the two conditions. As a group, aged monkeys were impaired on both the spatial and color conditions of the DRST, achieving about two-thirds of the span of the young adult group in each condition. Error analyses revealed that monkeys in the aged group also produced more perseverative responses (i.e., displacing the previously correct disk) than did young adults. Together the findings suggest that monkeys of advanced age are impaired on tasks with memory loading demand characteristics.

Increased microglial activation and protein nitration in white matter of the aging monkey.

Activated microglia are important pathological features of a variety of neurological diseases, including the normal aging process of the brain. Here, we quantified the level of microglial activation in the aging rhesus monkey using antibodies to HLA-DR and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). We observed that 3 out of 5 white matter areas but only 1 of 4 cortical gray matter regions examined showed significant increases in two measures of activated microglia with age, indicating that diffuse white matter microglial activation without significant gray matter involvement occurs with age. Substantial levels of iNOS and 3-nitrotyrosine, a marker for peroxynitrite, increased diffusely throughout subcortical white matter with age, suggesting a potential role of nitric oxide in age-related white matter injury. In addition, we found that the density of activated microglia in the subcortical white matter of the cingulate gyrus and the corpus callosum was significantly elevated with cognitive impairment in elderly monkeys. This study suggests that microglial activation increases in white matter with age and that these increases may reflect the role of activated microglia in the general pathogenesis of normal brain aging.

A comparison of the efferents of the amygdala and the hippocampal formation in the rhesus monkey: I. Convergence in the entorhinal, prorhinal, and perirhinal cortices.

This is the first in a series of papers investigating the neuroanatomical basis for the interaction of the amygdala and the hippocampal formation in the rhesus monkey. The present report focuses on the complementary and convergent projections of the amygdala and hippocampal formation to the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices. These results were obtained from complementary experiments using injections of radioactively labeled amino acids to identify the anterograde projection patterns and injections of horseradish peroxidase and fluorescent retrograde tracers to confirm the cytoarchitectonic location of the neurons of origin for each projection. The results of this investigation demonstrate that both the hippocampal formation and the amygdala project to the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices where, with a few exceptions, the major projections of each structure generally are found in different layers of the same cytoarchitecture subdivisions of the entorhinal cortex but overlap in the same layers of the perirhinal cortex. Thus, the lateral and accessory basal nuclei of the amygdala project to layer 3 of areas Pr1, 28I, 28L, and 28S, and the accessory basal nucleus projects strongly to layer 1 of these same areas. In contrast, the subiculum, prosubiculum, and subfield CA1 of the of the hippocampal formation all have a projection to layer 5 of these same areas. In area 28M, the accessory basal nucleus of the amygdala projects to layer 1, while the subiculum, prosubiculum, and subfield CA1 of the hippocampal formation all project to layer 5, and the presubiculum projects to layer 3. In addition to these complementary laminar projections, there are a few areas of laminar overlap. Thus in area 28S, both the presubiculum and the CA1 subfield project to layer 3, where the lateral and accessory basal amygdaloid nuclei also project. Similarly, in 28I there is a major projection from the presubiculum and a lighter projection from the subiculum and CA1 to layer 3, where the lateral and accessory basal nuclei also project. There is also extensive laminar overlap in the perirhinal cortex. From the amygdala, the accessory basal nucleus projects to layers 1 and 3 and the lateral basal nucleus to layers 3, 5, and 6, while from the hippocampal formation, the prosubiculum projects to layers 3, 5, and 6, and the CA1 subfield projects to layer 5. This pattern of hippocampal and amygdaloid projections to the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices indicates that these cortices constitute a region of potentially extensive interaction between the amygdala and the hippocampus.