Older infants' social learning behavior under uncertainty is modulated by the interaction of face and speech processing.

The origin of face or language influences infants' perceptual processing and social learning behavior. However, it remains unclear how infants' social learning behavior is affected when both information are provided simultaneously. Hence, the current study investigated whether and how infants' social learning in terms of gaze following is influenced by face race and language origin of an interaction partner in an uncertain situation. Our sample consisted of 91 Caucasian infants from German speaking families. They were divided into 2 age groups: Younger infants were 5- to 8-month-old (n = 46) and the older infants 11- to 20-month-old (n = 45). We used a modified online version of the gaze following paradigm by Xiao and colleagues by varying face race (Caucasian, and Asian faces) and language (German and French) of a female actor. We recorded infants looking behavior via webcam and coded it offline. Our results revealed that older but not younger infants were biased to follow the gaze of own-race adults speaking their native language. Our findings show that older infants are clearly influenced by adults' ethnicity and language in social learning situations of uncertainty.

Neural correlates of lexical-tone and vowel-quality processing in 6- and 9-month-old German-learning infants and adults.

We examined the neurophysiological underpinnings of lexical-tone and vowel-quality perception in learners of a non-tonal language. We tested 25 6- and 25 9-month-old German-learning infants, as well as 24 German adults and expected developmental differences for the two linguistic properties, as they are both carried by vowels, but have a different status in German. In adults, both lexical-tone and vowel-quality contrasts elicited mismatch negativities, with a stronger response to the vowel-quality contrast. Six-month-olds showed positive mismatch responses for lexical-tone and vowel-quality contrasts, with an emerging negative mismatch response for vowel-quality only. The negative mismatch responses became more pronounced for the vowel-quality contrast at 9 months, while the lexical-tone contrast elicited mainly positive mismatch responses. Our data reveal differential developmental changes in the processing of vowel properties that differ in their lexical relevance in the ambient language.

Recognition of emotional body language from dyadic and monadic point-light displays in 5-year-old children and adults.

Most child studies on emotion perception used faces and speech as emotion stimuli, but little is known about children's perception of emotions conveyed by body movements, that is, emotional body language (EBL). This study aimed to investigate whether processing advantages for positive emotions in children and negative emotions in adults found in studies on emotional face and term perception also occur in EBL perception. We also aimed to uncover which specific movement features of EBL contribute to emotion perception from interactive dyads compared with noninteractive monads in children and adults. We asked 5-year-old children and adults to categorize happy and angry point-light displays (PLDs), presented as pairs (dyads) and single actors (monads), in a button-press task. By applying representational similarity analyses, we determined intra- and interpersonal movement features of the PLDs and their relation to the participants' emotional categorizations. Results showed significantly higher recognition of happy PLDs in 5-year-olds and of angry PLDs in adults in monads but not in dyads. In both age groups, emotion recognition depended significantly on kinematic and postural movement features such as limb contraction and vertical movement in monads and dyads, whereas in dyads recognition also relied on interpersonal proximity measures such as interpersonal distance. Thus, EBL processing in monads seems to undergo a similar developmental shift from a positivity bias to a negativity bias, as was previously found for emotional faces and terms. Despite these age-specific processing biases, children and adults seem to use similar movement features in EBL processing.

Children's planning of efficient tool use in a social context.

Efficient joint action requires that we anticipate situational demands both regarding our own and another person's perspective, and adapt our actions accordingly. Accordingly, when handing over a tool somebody else, it is advantageous to anticipate our future hand orientation (motor imagery), as well as the future orientation of the tool (mental rotation) relative to the other person, in order to make the transfer as smooth and efficient as possible. Furthermore, familiarity with specific tools might facilitate planning. We tested thirty-two 5.5- to 7-year-old children on a tool transfer task, asking if they consider another person's comfort when handing over different tools, and whether tool familiarity, motor imagery, and mental rotation are related to their grip choices. We compared the children's performance to that of an adult control group. Besides a rather low performance on the transfer task, we found differences in children's consideration of another person's comfort related to the specific tools they interacted with. Specifically, the unfamiliar tool (a bar) was transferred more efficiently than the familiar tools (hammer/brush). In addition, the results suggest a relation between children's consideration of another person's comfort and their mental rotation score, but no relation with their motor imagery score.

Language familiarity influences own-race face recognition in 9- and 12-month-old infants.

During their first year, infants attune to the faces and language(s) that are frequent in their environment. The present study investigates the impact of language familiarity on how French-learning 9- and 12-month-olds recognize own-race faces. In Experiment 1, infants were familiarized with the talking face of a Caucasian bilingual German-French speaker reciting a nursery rhyme in French (native condition) or in German (non-native condition). In the test phase, infants' face recognition was tested by presenting a picture of the speaker's face they were familiarized with, side by side with a novel face. At 9 and 12 months, neither infants in the native condition nor the ones in the non-native condition clearly recognized the speaker's face. In Experiment 2, we familiarized infants with the still picture of the speaker's face, along with the auditory speech stream. This time, both 9- and 12-month-olds recognized the face of the speaker they had been familiarized with, but only if she spoke in their native language. This study shows that at least from 9 months of age, language modulates the way faces are recognized.

Do infants show knowledge of the familiar size of everyday objects?

The current study aimed to examine the age at which infants exhibit knowledge of the familiar size of common everyday objects. A total of 65 7- and 12-month-old infants were presented with familiar-sized and novel-sized (i.e., larger or smaller than the familiar size) common everyday objects (i.e., pacifiers and sippy cups), which were placed out of their reach. Both 7- and 12-month-olds' first looks were more frequently directed toward physically larger objects irrespective of whether they were familiar- or novel-sized objects. This finding indicates that initial visual orientation is contingent on the magnitude of the absolute physical size of an object. However, when the entire duration of presentation of the objects (i.e., 10 s) was examined, 12-month-olds' mean looking durations were found to be longer for novel-sized objects than for familiar-sized objects. Thus, although infants in both age groups were able to discern the physical sizes of objects, only 12-month-olds could successfully discriminate between the familiar and novel sizes of everyday objects. Notably, 12-month-olds demonstrated knowledge of familiar size even though the test objects were out of their reach and, consequently, unamenable to manual exploration.

Motor and cognitive functioning in children treated for idiopathic clubfoot at the age of 3 years.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have investigated motor and cognitive skills in infants as well as gross motor abilities in schoolchildren treated for congenital idiopathic clubfoot, mostly indicating specific impairments in those children. However, until now, little is known about the motor and cognitive abilities of preschool children treated for idiopathic clubfoot. Thus, it was the aim of this study to examine gross motor, fine motor and cognitive skills of 3-year-old-children treated for idiopathic clubfoot. METHOD: We tested gross motor, fine motor and cognitive functioning of 10 children treated for idiopathic clubfoot and 10 typically developing children at the age of 40 months (SD = 1) with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development. RESULTS: The children treated for idiopathic clubfoot showed a slight delay in gross motor development. In particular, they demonstrated difficulties in tiptoeing, walking upstairs and walking downstairs. Moreover, we found some slight deficits in cognitive development, particularly in visual-spatial memory. DISCUSSION: Children treated for idiopathic clubfoot appear to have an increased risk of gross motor and spatial cognitive deficits. Orthopedic pediatrics should incorporate measures of gross motor functioning, for example tiptoeing, in their orthopedic setting. Moreover, future studies are needed to clarify whether the observed deficits persist through childhood. If so, some kind of a motor training for children with idiopathic clubfoot might be required.

The positive influence of manual object exploration on predictive grasping for a moving object in 9-month-old infants.

The present study examined whether infants' manual prediction ability is related to different types of their manual object exploration behavior. Thirty-two 9-month-old infants were tested in a manual prediction task, in which they were encouraged to reach for a temporarily occluded moving object. All infants also participated in a manual exploration task, in which they could freely explore five toy blocks. Infants with a high number of haptic scans in the manual exploration task showed a higher prediction rate in the manual prediction task compared to infants with a low haptic scan score. Reaction times of all infants decreased during the test blocks. However, the reaction time of infants with a high haptic scan score was faster in general. Our findings suggest that object experiences gathered by specific manual exploratory actions, such as haptic scans, are related to infants' predictive abilities when reaching and grasping for a temporarily occluded moving object.

The Development of Implicit Memory From Infancy to Childhood: On Average Performance Levels and Interindividual Differences.

The present multimethod longitudinal study aimed at investigating development and stability of implicit memory during infancy and early childhood. A total of 134 children were followed longitudinally from 3 months to 3 years of life assessing different age-appropriate measures of implicit memory. Results from structural equation modeling give further evidence that implicit memory is stable from 9 months of life on, with earlier performance predicting later performance. Second, it was found that implicit memory is present from early on, and no age-related improvements are found from 3 months on. Results are discussed with respect to the basic brain structures implicit memory builds on, as well as methodological issues.

Waiting for the Second Treat: Developing Culture-Specific Modes of Self-Regulation.

The development of self-regulation has been studied primarily in Western middle-class contexts and has, therefore, neglected what is known about culturally varying self-concepts and socialization strategies. The research reported here compared the self-regulatory competencies of German middle-class (N = 125) and rural Cameroonian Nso preschoolers (N = 76) using the Marshmallow test (Mischel, 2014). Study 1 revealed that 4-year-old Nso children showed better delay-of-gratification performance than their German peers. Study 2 revealed that culture-specific maternal socialization goals and interaction behaviors were related to delay-of-gratification performance. Nso mothers' focus on hierarchical relational socialization goals and responsive control seems to support children's delay-of-gratification performance more than German middle-class mothers' emphasis on psychological autonomous socialization goals and sensitive, child-centered parenting.

Impact of rotation angle on crawling and non-crawling 9-month-old infants' mental rotation ability.

The current study investigated whether 9-month-old infants' mental rotation performance was influenced by the magnitude of the angle of object rotation and their crawling ability. A total of 76 infants were tested; of these infants, 39 had been crawling for an average of 9.0 weeks. Infants were habituated to a video of a simplified Shepard-Metzler object (Shepard & Metzler, 1971), always rotating forward through a 180° angle around the horizontal axis of the object. After habituation, in two different test conditions, infants were presented with test videos of the same object rotating farther forward through a previously unseen 90° angle and with a test video of its mirror image. The two test conditions differed in the magnitude of the gap between the end of the habituation rotations and the beginning of the test rotations. The gaps were 0° and 54°. The results revealed that the mental rotation performance was influenced by the magnitude of the gaps only for the crawling infants. Their response showed significant transition from a preference for the mirror object rotations toward a preference for the familiar habituation object rotations. Thus, the results provide first evidence that it is easier for 9-month-old crawling infants to mentally rotate an object along a small angle compared with a large one.

The development of the grasp height effect as a measure of efficient action planning in children.

One effect that illustrates how people adjust aspects of their grasping according to situational constraints is the grasp height effect; when reaching for objects positioned at different heights, adults' grasp height (vertical position of the hand on the object) tends to correlate negatively with object height. This indicates that grasp positions are planned so that they facilitate later placements of the object. The current study investigated the development of the grasp height effect with 3-year-old children, 5-year-old children, and adults. This paradigm allows for studying efficient action planning in the context of a simple task with relatively low motor requirements. Other tasks used so far for studying this issue involved relatively complex adjustments of hand position that younger children might have found difficult to perform. Usually, preschoolers' performance on these tasks was relatively low. We expected that, due to the lower motor requirements of the grasp height paradigm, clearer evidence of efficient planning might be found in preschool children. A second focus of this study was to explore children's behavior in different movement phases of the grasping task. Whereas the task of placing an object at different heights involves planning, putting the object back to its original position seems to depend on recall. The results indicate a significant grasp height effect in all age groups but also significant development across the studied age range. Regarding the second movement phase, when participants were required to put the objects back on the original home shelf, 3- and 5-year-olds did not seem to act based on recall in this context.

The relation between crawling and 9-month-old infants' visual prediction abilities in spatial object processing.

We examined whether 9-month-old infants' visual prediction abilities in the context of spatial object processing are related to their crawling ability. A total of 33 9-month-olds were tested; half of them crawled for 7.6weeks on average. A new visual prediction paradigm was developed during which a three-dimensional three-object array was presented in a live setting. During familiarization, the object array rotated back and forth along the vertical axis. While the array was moving, two target objects of it were briefly occluded from view and uncovered again as the array changed its direction of motion. During the test phase, the entire array was rotated around 90° and then rotated back and forth along the horizontal axis. The targets remained at the same position or were moved to a modified placement. We recorded infants' eye movements directed at the dynamically covered and uncovered target locations and analyzed infants' prediction rates. All infants showed higher prediction rates at test and when the targets' placement was modified. Most importantly, the results demonstrated that crawlers had higher prediction rates during test trials as compared with non-crawlers. Our study supports the assumption that crawling experience might enhance 9-month-old infants' ability to correctly predict complex object movement.

The influence of grasping habits and object orientation on motor planning in children and adults.

We investigated the influence of habitual grasp strategies and object orientation on motor planning in 3-year-olds and 4- to 5-year-old children and adults. Participants were required to rotate different vertically oriented objects around 180°. Usually, adults perform this task by grasping objects with an awkward grip (thumb and index finger pointing downward) at the beginning of the movement, in order to finish it with a comfortable hand position. This pattern corresponds to the well-known end-state comfort effect (ESC) in grasp planning. The presented objects were associated with different habitual grasp orientations that either corresponded with the grasp direction required to reach end-state comfort (downward) or implied a contrary grasp orientation (upward). Additionally, they were presented either in their usual, canonical orientation (e.g., shovel with the blade oriented downward versus cup with its opening oriented upward) or upside down. As dependent variable we analyzed the number of grips conforming to the end-state comfort principle (ESC score) realized in each object type and orientation condition. The number of grips conforming to ESC strongly increased with age. In addition, the extent to which end-state comfort was considered was influenced by the actual orientation of the objects' functional parts. Thus, in all age-groups the ESC score was highest when the functional parts of the objects were oriented downward (shovel presented canonically with blade pointing downward, cup presented upside down) and corresponded to the hand orientation needed to realize ESC.

[The Motor Development of Children with Infantile Esotropia]. / Die motorische Entwicklung von Kindern mit frühkindlichem Innenschielen.

Background Until now, many studies have investigated the link between motor development and visual-spatial abilities in infancy and childhood. Most of these studies found evidence that there is such a link in typically developing children or children with locomotor delay. Only a few studies have tested the consequences of this link in children with abnormal visual development because of infantile esotropia. Moreover, little is known about the effects of late surgery on motor development. Patients and Methods We assessed the motor abilities of 3- to 7-year old children with severe deficits in stereopsis due to infantile esotropia (angle ≥ 12°) and typically developing children prior to and 12 to 16 months after surgery. We used the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC-2). Results Prior to and one year after surgery, the strabismic children showed significantly lower global motor scores than normal children. Moreover, in the strabismic children, we found significant differences relative to the healthy children in the subscales assessing manual dexterity and balance prior to and significant differences in the subscales assessing manual dexterity and ball skills after surgery. Overall, the strabismic group did not demonstrate improvements in motor development after surgery. However, the children with a positive Bagolini striated glass test following surgery performed better in the subscale assessing balance than children with a negative Bagolini striated glass test. Conclusions Motor skills were poorer in children with infantile esotropia, both prior to and following surgery. Moreover, the children with improved binocular vision after surgery demonstrated better balance skills. Possible explanations and practical implications are discussed.

Experience with headwear influences the other-race effect in 4-year-old children.

The other-race effect (ORE) implies the better recognition of faces of one's own race compared with faces of a different race. It demonstrates that face recognition is shaped by daily experience with human faces. Such experience mainly includes structural information of own-race faces and also information on the way faces are usually seen, as a whole or partly covered by scarves or other headwear. In two experiments, we investigated how this mode of presentation is related to the occurrence of the ORE during childhood. In Experiment 1, 4-year-old German children (N = 104), accustomed to seeing faces without headwear in daily life, were asked to recognize female Caucasian or African faces, presented either as a whole or wearing a woolen hat, in a forced choice paradigm. In Experiment 2, 4-year-olds from rural Cameroon (N = 70), accustomed to seeing faces with and without headwear in daily life, participated in the same task. In both groups, the ORE was present in the familiar mode of presentation, that is, in whole faces in German children and in whole and partly covered faces in Cameroonian children. The results are discussed in relation to the role of experience for face recognition processes.

Asymmetries in Infants' Vowel Perception: Changes in Vowel Discrimination in German Learning 6- and 9-Month-Old Infants.

Infants' speech perception is characterized by substantial changes during the first year of life that attune the processing mechanisms to the specific properties of the ambient language. This paper focuses on these developmental changes in vowel perception. More specifically, the emergence and potential cause of perceptual asymmetries in vowel perception are investigated by an experimental study on German 6- and 9-month-olds' discrimination of a vowel contrast that is not phonemic in German. Results show discrimination without any asymmetry in the 6-month-olds but an asymmetrical pattern with better performance when the vowel changes from the less focal to the more focal vowel than vice versa by the 9-month-olds. The results concerning the asymmetries are compatible with the Natural Referent Framework as well as with the Native Language Magnet model. Our results foster two main conclusions. First, bi-directional testing must be mandatory when testing vowel perception. Second, when testing non-native vowel perception, the relation of the stimuli to the native language vowel system has to be considered very carefully as this system impacts the perception of non-native vowels.

The Influence of Active and Passive Motion Experience on Infants' Visual Prediction Ability.

In the present study we examined whether infants' visual prediction abilities were related to different types of motion experiences. We tested 30 6-month-old infants on a visual-spatial prediction task in which they had to visually anticipate the locational reappearance of temporarily occluded moving objects. We assigned infants to one of three experience groups: active locomotion training, passive motion experience, and a no-training control group. We tested the infants' visual prediction abilities before and after these trainings. We found improved infant predictions at a post-training test only for passively trained infants (p = .015, d = -1.033; Bonferroni corrected). Thus, we conclude that infants' visual-spatial predictions of temporally occluded moving objects was facilitated by mere movement experience, even if passive. Visual information gathered during even passive movement seemed sufficient for visual prediction.

Free viewing biases for complex scenes in preschoolers and adults.

Adult gaze behaviour towards naturalistic scenes is highly biased towards semantic object classes. Little is known about the ontological development of these biases, nor about group-level differences in gaze behaviour between adults and preschoolers. Here, we let preschoolers (n = 34, age 5 years) and adults (n = 42, age 18-59 years) freely view 40 complex scenes containing objects with different semantic attributes to compare their fixation behaviour. Results show that preschool children allocate a significantly smaller proportion of dwell time and first fixations on Text and instead fixate Faces, Touched objects, Hands and Bodies more. A predictive model of object fixations controlling for a range of potential confounds suggests that most of these differences can be explained by drastically reduced text salience in pre-schoolers and that this effect is independent of low-level salience. These findings are in line with a developmental attentional antagonism between text and body parts (touched objects and hands in particular), which resonates with recent findings regarding 'cortical recycling'. We discuss this and other potential mechanisms driving salience differences between children and adults.

Object processing in visual perception and action in children and adults.

We investigated whether 6- and 7-year-olds and 9- and 10-year-olds, as well as adults, process object dimensions independent of or in interaction with one another in a perception and action task by adapting Ganel and Goodale's method for testing adults (Nature, 2003, Vol. 426, pp. 664-667). In addition, we aimed to confirm Ganel and Goodale's results in adults to reliably compare their processing strategies with those of children. Specifically, we tested the abilities of children and adults to perceptually classify (perception task) or grasp (action task) the width of a rectangular object while ignoring its length. We found that adults process object dimensions in interaction with one another in visual perception but independent of each other in action, thereby replicating Ganel and Goodale's results. Children processed object dimensions interactively in visual perception, and there was also some evidence for interactive processing in action. Possible reasons for these differences in object processing between children and adults are discussed.