Complicated grief following job loss: Risk factors for its development and maintenance.

Increasing evidence shows that job loss can lead to symptoms of complicated grief (CG). However, little is known about which factors relate to the development and maintenance of CG symptoms following job loss. This study aimed to examine risk factors for the development and maintenance of job loss-related CG symptoms. For this study 485 Dutch workers who had lost their job were recruited (239 men and 246 women), with an average age of 50.2 years. A subsample of 128 participants also completed questionnaires at a six-month follow-up. We conducted correlational and multiple regression analyses (MRA) to examine the influence of the former work situation, coping strategies, and negative cognitions on job loss-related CG symptoms. MRA results showed that belief in an unjust world was related to job loss-related CG symptoms, cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Further, there was a significant relationship between CG symptoms following job loss and a preference for maladaptive coping over adaptive coping styles and a low level of self-esteem. This effect remained stable over time. These findings can inform the development of interventions for and early detection of job loss-related CG symptoms.

Speaking up, support, control and work engagement of medical residents. A structural equation modelling analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Medical residents can play key roles in improving health care quality by speaking up and giving suggestions for improvements. However, previous research on speaking up by medical residents has shown that speaking up is difficult for residents. This study explored: (i) whether two main aspects of medical residents' work context (job control and supervisor support) are associated with speaking up by medical residents, and (ii) whether these associations differ between in-hospital and out-of-hospital settings. METHODS: Speaking up was operationalised and measured as voice behaviour. Structural equation modelling using a cross-sectional survey design was used to identify and test factors pertaining to speaking up and to compare hospital settings. RESULTS: A total of 499 medical residents in the Netherlands participated in the study. Correlational analysis showed significant positive associations between each of support and control, and voice behaviour. The authors assumed that the associations between support and control, and voice behaviour would be partially mediated by engagement. This partial mediation model fitted the data best, but showed no association between support and voice. However, multi-group analysis showed that for residents in hospital settings, support is associated with voice behaviour. For residents outside hospital settings, control is more important. Engagement mediated the effects of control and support outside hospital settings, but not within the hospital. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that in order to enable medical residents to share their suggestions for improvement, it is beneficial to invest in supportive supervision and to increase their sense of control. Boosting medical residents' support would be most effective in hospital settings, whereas in other health care organisations it would be more effective to focus on job control.

Effect of a participative action intervention program on reducing mental retirement.

BACKGROUND: The present study aimed to investigate the effects of a stepwise, bottom-up participatory program with a tailor-made intervention process addressing the level of mental retirement in a sample of Dutch employees. Mental retirement refers to feelings of being disconnected from your work and your organization. Prevention of mental retirement is important since sustainable employability is becoming more important in today's society due to the ageing of the working population and the changes in skills demands. METHODS: This prospective cohort study with a one-year follow-up employs a sample of 683 employees of three organizations in The Netherlands, who filled out two questionnaires: at baseline and 1 year later. The dependent measure was mental retirement, which consists of three sub-concepts: developmental pro-activity, work engagement and perceived appreciation. RESULTS: Multilevel analysis (N = 466) showed that employees who more actively participated in the intervention(s) had a small but statistically significant larger decrease in mental retirement at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The stepwise, bottom-up participatory program with a tailor-made intervention process shows a tendency to decrease the level of mental retirement in Dutch employees. However, the implementation of interventions could be further improved since it turned out to be very challenging to keep up participants' commitment to the program. Future research should study the effectiveness of this program further with an improved study design (control group, multiple follow-ups, several data sources).

Work Characteristics and Return to Work in Long-Term Sick-Listed Employees with Depressive Symptoms.

Purpose The present study investigated the relations between work characteristics, depressive symptoms and duration until full return to work (RTW) among long-term sick-listed employees. This knowledge may add to the development of effective interventions and prevention, especially since work characteristics can be subjected to interventions more easily than many disorder-related or personal factors. Methods this prospective cohort study with a two-year follow-up employs a sample of 883 Dutch employees who had been sick-listed for at least 13 weeks at baseline, who filled out three questionnaires: at 19 weeks, 1 and 2 years after the start of sick leave. The dependent measure was duration until full RTW. Results not working (partially) at baseline, low decision authority, high psychological demands, low supervisor support and low RTW self-efficacy were related to more depressive symptoms. The duration until full RTW was longer for employees with depressive symptoms. Low physical exertion, high RTW self-efficacy, working partially at baseline, being married or cohabiting, and young age were related to less time until full RTW. Other work characteristics appeared no independent predictors of RTW. Conclusions although the role of job demands and job resources in the RTW process is limited for long-term sick-listed employees with depressive symptoms, a few work characteristics are prognostic factors of full RTW. Focus on these elements in the selection or development of interventions may be helpful in preventing sickness absence, and in supporting long-term sick-listed employees towards full RTW.

Who gets fired, who gets re-hired: the role of workers' contract, age, health, work ability, performance, work satisfaction and employee investments.

PURPOSE: Many workers have been dismissed in the past few years, either becoming unemployed or finding re-employment. The current study examined whether dismissal and its follow-up for the employee (re-employment versus unemployment) could be predicted from workers' employment contract and age, and their health status, work ability, work performance, work satisfaction and employee investments at baseline. METHODS: Our sample comprised a selection of participants from the Netherlands Working Conditions Survey 2010 who participated in a follow-up questionnaire in 2012 (N = 2,644). We used logistic regression analyses to test our hypotheses. RESULTS: Temporary employment, low health status, low work ability, poor work performance, low work satisfaction and no employee investments in terms of training predicted future dismissal. Furthermore, older workers and workers reporting decreased work performance due to impaired health at baseline had a lower chance of re-employment after being dismissed. Interestingly, after taking into account all predictors, former temporary workers without permanent employment prospects had much better chances of re-employment after their dismissal than former permanent workers. CONCLUSIONS: Temporary, less healthy, low work ability, poor performing, dissatisfied and "under-invested" workers are at risk for dismissal, whereas older and less healthy workers are (also) at risk for long-term unemployment after being dismissed.

The authentic worker's well-being and performance: the relationship between authenticity at work, well-being, and work outcomes.

Previous research on authenticity has mainly focused on trait conceptualizations of authenticity (e.g., Wood et al., 2008), whereas in specific environments (e.g., at work) state conceptualizations of authenticity (cf. Van den Bosch & Taris, 2013) are at least as relevant. For example, working conditions are subject to change, and this could well have consequences for employees' perceived level of authenticity at work. The current study employs a work-specific, state-like conceptualization of authenticity to investigate the relations between authenticity at work, well-being, and work outcomes. A series of ten separate hierarchical regression analyses using data from 685 participants indicated that after controlling for selected work characteristics and demographic variables, authenticity at work accounted for on average 11% of the variance of various wellbeing and work outcomes. Of the three subscales of authenticity at work (i.e., authentic living, self-alienation, and accepting influence), self-alienation was the strongest predictor of outcomes, followed by authentic living and accepting external influence, respectively. These findings are discussed in the light of their practical and theoretical implications.

"Are you feeling safe?": an investigation of psychosocial safety climate in the relations of job characteristics and employee exhaustion and engagement.

Psychosocial safety climate (PSC) is defined as the corporate climate in relation to employees' perceptions of organizational policies, procedures, and practices for the protection of employee psychosocial safety and well-being. The present study was based on the Demand-Induced Strain Compensation (DISC) Model and proposed that the interplay between identical job demands and resources would be conditioned by PSC. Particularly, high levels of PSC would enable employees to optimally perceive and utilize more job resources in dealing with corresponding job demands. A study was conducted among 406 Chinese workers from various occupational sectors. The findings of hierarchical regression analyses suggested that PSC a) mitigates the negative relation between emotional resources and exhaustion, b) enhances the positive relation between emotional resources and work engagement, and c) mitigates the negative relation between emotional demands and work engagement. We also found that PSC is a compensatory factor for low cognitive resources and demands encouraging high work engagement. Although we did not find the proposed three-way interactions, the present findings support the idea that high PSC is a fundamental contextual factor conducive to workers' health and well-being, especially in perceiving and obtaining emotional resources.

Symptoms of complicated grief and depression following job loss: Can engagement in non-work activities bring relief?

The present study aimed to examine whether day-level engagement in non-work activities can mitigate the adverse outcomes of job loss. Based on Jahoda's latent deprivation model, we hypothesized that engaging in such activities (e.g., meeting others) can fulfil five basic needs (e.g., need for time structure) and that fulfilment of these needs mitigates the negative consequences of job loss. A diary study was conducted on five consecutive days among 236 participants who had involuntarily lost their job, yielding 1046 daily measures of the time spent on activities, the evaluation of these activities, and emotional distress. Multilevel regression analyses showed that time spent on daily activities was associated with the degree of fulfilment of the basic needs and emotional distress, yet the effect sizes were small. Perceived utility of these daily activities showed more solid effect sizes with the basic needs and emotional distress. However, the mediation effect of the basic needs regarding the association between activities and emotional distress could not be confirmed. The present results suggest that, in addition to stimulating individuals who experience job loss-related emotional distress to undertake certain activities, the evaluation of these activities should also be taken into account in tailor-made interventions and preventive measures.

Can labour contract differences in health and work-related attitudes be explained by quality of working life and job insecurity?

STUDY AIM: We hypothesise that due to a lower quality of working life and higher job insecurity, the health and work-related attitudes of temporary workers may be less positive compared to permanent workers. Therefore, we aimed to (1) examine differences between contract groups (i.e. permanent contract, temporary contract with prospect of permanent work, fixed-term contract, temporary agency contract and on-call contract) in the quality of working life, job insecurity, health and work-related attitudes and (2) investigate whether these latter contract group differences in health and work-related attitudes can be explained by differences in the quality of working life and/or job insecurity. METHODS: Data were collected from the Netherlands Working Conditions Survey 2008 (N = 21,639), and Hypotheses were tested using analysis of variance and cross-table analysis. RESULTS: Temporary work was associated with fewer task demands and lower autonomy and was more often passive or high-strain work, while permanent work was more often active work. Except for on-call work, temporary work was more insecure and associated with worse health and work-related attitude scores than permanent work. Finally, the quality of working life and job insecurity partly accounted for most contract differences in work-related attitudes but not in health. CONCLUSIONS: Especially agency workers have a lower health status and worse work-related attitudes. Job redesign measures regarding their quality of working life and job insecurity are recommended.

Differences in predictors of return to work among long-term sick-listed employees with different self-reported reasons for sick leave.

INTRODUCTION: The present study aimed to gain insight in the predictors of full return to work (RTW) among employees on long-term sick leave due to three different self-reported reasons for sick leave: physical, mental or co-morbid physical and mental problems. This knowledge can be used to develop diagnosis-specific interventions that promote earlier RTW. METHODS: This prospective cohort study with a two-year follow-up employs a sample of 682 Dutch employees, sick-listed for 19 weeks (SD = 1.68), who filled out two questionnaires: at 19 weeks and 2 years after the start of sick leave. The dependent measure was duration until full RTW, the independent measures were cause of sick leave, health characteristics, individual characteristics and work characteristics. RESULTS: Reporting both physical and mental problems as reasons for sick leave was associated with a longer duration until full RTW. Nonparametric Cox survival analysis showed that partial RTW at baseline and lower age were strong predictors of earlier RTW in all three groups, and that RTW self-efficacy predicted earlier RTW in two groups. Other predictors of full RTW varied among groups. CONCLUSIONS: Tailoring for different reasons for sick leave might improve the effects of new interventions because the predictors of full RTW differ among groups. Enhancement of partial RTW and RTW self-efficacy may be relevant components of any intervention, as these were predictors of full RTW in at least two groups.

Demographic and occupational correlates of workaholism.

Drawing on a convenience sample of 9,160 Dutch employees, the present study examined whether commonly held ideas about the associations between demographic, professional, and occupational characteristics and workaholism would be observed. For example, it is sometimes assumed that managers are more likely to display workaholic tendencies than others. Analysis of variance was used to relate workaholism scores (measured as the combination of working excessively and working compulsively) to participant age, sex, employment status (self-employed or not), profession, and occupational sector. Relatively high average scores on workaholism were obtained by workers in the agriculture, construction, communication, consultancy, and commerce/trade sectors, as well as managers and higher professionals. Low scores were found for those in the public administration and services industry sectors, and for nurses, social workers, and paramedics. The other characteristics were not or only weakly related to workaholism.

Job loss-related complicated grief symptoms: A cognitive-behavioral framework.

In a significant minority of people, involuntarily job loss can result in symptoms of job loss-related complicated grief (JLCG). The present cognitive-behavioral framework is introduced to explain the underlying processes that may lead to the development and maintenance of JLCG symptoms. Three core processes play a central role, namely (1) negative cognitions related to the job loss and misinterpretation of one's grief reactions; (2) anxious and depressive avoidance strategies to cope with the job loss and its consequences; and (3) insufficient integration of the job loss into the autobiographical memory. These core processes are assumed to interact and reinforce each other, leading to JLCG symptoms. The three core processes can be influenced by certain risk factors, including circumstances surrounding the loss, personality traits, and characteristics of the social environment. JLCG symptoms can lead to additional psychological and practical problems, such as anxiety and depressive symptoms, lower employability, and reduced likelihood of re-employment. This paper explains and illustrates the three core processes with vignettes. Implications of the model for preventive measures and psychological interventions are introduced. It concludes with suggestions for future research on JLCG symptoms.

Stimulating Employability and Job Crafting Behaviour of Physicians: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

The demanding work context of physicians challenges their employability (i.e., their ability and willingness to continue to work). This requires them to proactively manage their working life and employability, for instance, through job crafting behaviour. This randomized controlled intervention study aimed to examine the effects of a personalized feedback report on physicians' employability and job crafting behaviour. A total of 165 physicians from two hospitals in a large Dutch city were randomly assigned to a waitlist control or intervention group in May 2019. Physicians in the intervention group received access to a personalized feedback report with their employability scores, suggestions to improve these and to engage in job crafting. Participants completed a pre-test and eight weeks later a post-test. RM MANOVAs and RM ANOVAs showed that the intervention enhanced participants' perceptions of their mental (F (1,130) = 4.57, p < 0.05) and physical (F (1,135) = 16.05, p < 0.001) ability to continue working. There was no effect on their willingness to continue to work. Furthermore, while job crafting behaviour significantly increased over time, the personalized feedback report did not account for this change. This low-investment intervention is relevant for organizations to stimulate employees' proactivity and create positive perceptions of their ability to continue to work. Moreover, this study contributes to the literature by examining a novel approach of a job crafting intervention that does not require many resources to implement.

Burn-out and employability rates are impacted by the level of job autonomy and workload among Dutch gastroenterologists.

BACKGROUND: Increasing burn-out rates among gastroenterologists make it necessary to find ways to prevent burn-out and to stimulate their ability and willingness to continue working (i.e., their employability). Understanding their antecedents might help organizations to prevent burn-out and to enhance employability among this occupational group. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to provide insight in the relationship between job characteristics and job crafting behavior on the one hand and job outcomes (burn-out symptoms and employability) on the other hand. METHODS: Data from two surveys in 2020 and 2021 were collected in a longitudinal study among 238 Dutch gastroenterologists. The data were analyzed with multiple linear regression analyses and paired-samples t-tests. RESULTS: Job characteristics, specifically job aspects that require sustained physical and/or psychological effort or skills (i.e., job demands), are important predictors of burn-out symptoms among gastroenterologists. Specifically, high quantitative and emotional workload are significantly related to more burn-out symptoms. No strong relationship was found between job crafting and burn-out symptoms. Furthermore, job aspects that reduce the negative impact of these demanding aspects and that help to achieve work goals (i.e., job resources), and job demands to some extent, significantly predict employability. In particular, high job autonomy is related to higher employability, and high quantitative workload is associated with lower employability. Job crafting does not significantly affect employability. Furthermore, levels of burn-out symptoms and employability differed only little across time. CONCLUSION: In gastroenterologists, a high quantitative workload and emotional workload are associated with a higher burn-out risk, while low job autonomy and high quantitative workload are associated with more negative perceptions of employability. To prevent burn-out and to create positive perceptions of employability, it is important to take these aspects into account.

Psychological symptoms and subsequent sickness absence.

PURPOSE: Mental health problems are associated with sickness absence (SA). The present study aimed at establishing which symptoms-distress, depression, anxiety, or somatization-at which symptom levels were associated with SA frequency and duration. Moreover, a number of possible confounders or effect modifiers were taken into account. METHODS: A survey was completed by 3,678 employees of a large Dutch telecom company. Symptoms were measured using the Four-Dimensional Symptom Questionnaire (4DSQ). SA data were registered by the company's occupational health service during the 12 months' period following the survey. Poisson regression was used to analyze the number of SA spells (SA frequency). Negative binomial regression was used to analyze the total number of SA days (SA duration). RESULTS: In the bivariate analyses distress, depression, anxiety, and somatization impacted on SA frequency and duration. In the multivariate analyses, anxiety and depression turned out not to be directly associated with SA, suggesting that the effect of anxiety and depression was due to the association between anxiety/depression and distress/somatization. Regarding the SA frequency, the rate ratio for 'subclinical' distress was 1.13 (95% CI 1.03-1.25), for 'clinical' distress 1.26 (1.08-1.47), for 'subclinical' somatization 1.34 (1.23-1.46), and for 'clinical' somatization 1.69 (1.46-1.95). Regarding the SA duration, the count ratio for 'subclinical' distress was 1.15 (95% CI 0.91-1.44), for 'clinical' distress 1.50 (1.04-2.16), for 'subclinical' somatization 1.34 (1.10-1.64), and for 'clinical' somatization 1.45 (1.04-2.03). CONCLUSIONS: Somatization and distress are key to understand why depression and anxiety are related to SA.

Investigating the associations among overtime work, health behaviors, and health: a longitudinal study among full-time employees.

BACKGROUND: It has often been suggested that high levels of overtime lead to adverse health outcomes. One mechanism that may account for this association is that working overtime leads to elevated levels of stress, which could affect worker's behavioral decisions or habits (such as smoking and lack of physical activity). In turn, this could lead to adverse health. PURPOSE: The present study examined this reasoning in a prospective longitudinal design. Data from the prospective 2-year Study on Health at Work (N = 649) were used to test our hypotheses. METHODS: Structural equation analysis was used to examine the relationships among overtime, beneficial (exercising, intake of fruit and vegetables) and risky (smoking and drinking) health behaviors, and health indicators (BMI and subjective health). RESULTS: Working overtime was longitudinally related with adverse subjective health, but not with body mass. Moreover, working overtime was associated with lower levels of physical activity and intake of fruit and vegetables, but not with smoking and drinking. Finally, higher levels of risky and lower levels of beneficial health behaviors were longitudinally associated with ill health. CONCLUSIONS: The relation between overtime and ill health is partly accounted for by the unhealthy lifestyle in which overworkers tend to engage. However, a direct longitudinal effect of overtime on health suggested that the effects of overtime on health may also partly be due to the sustained physiological activation that results from working overtime. Whereas working a moderate amount of overtime does not usually entail major health risks, these will increase with increasing overtime.

Costs and benefits of autonomy when learning a task: an experimental approach.

Previous findings suggested that the positive relationship between autonomy and learning outcomes (such as improved task performance) only holds up until a certain optimum level of autonomy has been reached. This assumption was investigated in an experimental study where 95 participants had to learn a computer task. During the learning phase, we manipulated autonomy, distinguishing among no, moderate, and full autonomy. The results revealed that, when learning a task, having autonomy is preferred to having no autonomy. However, increases in autonomy beyond a certain level (i.e., full versus moderate autonomy) will not yield additional advantages regarding the motivation to learn and learning outcomes, and may have disadvantages in terms of learning efficiency.

In the Eye of the Beholder: Challenge and Hindrance Appraisals of Work Characteristics and Their Implications for Employee's Well-Being.

Previous research on the association between job characteristics and employee well-being has returned mixed results. In particular, the possible impact of individual appraisal of these job characteristics has not been well-acknowledged. To address this limitation, we drew on appraisal theory and examined: (a) how workers appraise particular job characteristics, and (b) how these appraisals affect the relationships between these job characteristics and well-being (i.e., work engagement and burnout). We tested our hypotheses across two studies. In a cross-occupation sample (Study 1, n = 514), we found that job demands and resources can be appraised as both challenges and hindrances. In addition, challenge appraisals can mitigate the detrimental impact of job demands on engagement and burnout; and hindrance appraisals can strengthen the detrimental effects of job demands on burnout. Further, hindrance appraisals of job resources reduce their beneficial effects on engagement and burnout. Study 2 (n = 316 nurses in a hospital) further showed that challenge appraisals of job demands can reduce their impact on burnout while challenge appraisals of job resources will strengthen their positive effect on employee engagement and burnout. We discuss study implications as well as future research directions.

The Benefits of Forgiveness at Work: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Time-Lagged Relations Between Forgiveness and Work Outcomes.

Forgiveness has received increasing attention in the work context. Although recent cross-sectional studies have found a positive link between forgiveness and work outcomes, further research examining the temporal dynamics between these variables is needed to establish causality. This preregistered panel study investigated the time-lagged relations between forgiveness and work outcomes, and specifically addressed the question whether forgiving a coworker benefits work outcomes. Longitudinal survey data were collected at four time points among 139 Chinese employees working at least 20 hours per week. Results from cross-lagged panel models revealed that forgiving an offending coworker with whom one has a relatively good work relationship predicted better work outcomes (i.e., higher job satisfaction, higher work engagement, and lower burnout) over time, while controlling for perceived severity of the offense. Evidence for the reverse effect (with work outcomes predicting forgiveness) was not found. Our findings thus suggest that forgiveness facilitates well-being-related work outcomes. Implications for a better understanding of forgiveness in work relationships are discussed.

Grief reactions, depression, and anxiety following job loss: patterns and correlates.

Background: Research on grief, depression, and anxiety reactions following job loss is sparse. More insight in this matter could be important for the development of preventive and curative interventions targeting different manifestations of emotional distress following job loss, including grief reactions.Objective: The aim of this study was to examine job loss-related grief reactions in relation to depression and anxiety symptoms.Method: A sample of 525 Dutch workers (59.8% women, mean age of 50.6 years) who had lost their job was recruited. Latent class analysis was used to examine whether separate classes could be distinguished based on the endorsement of grief reactions and symptoms of depression of anxiety. We also examined factors associated with class membership.Results: Four classes were identified, including a so-called 'mixed', a 'grieving', a 'depressed', and a 'resilient' class. Job loss circumstances and coping strategies (but not socio-demographic and work characteristics) were associated with class membership.Conclusion: These results shed light on unique characteristics that might be targeted with specific clinical methods to increase mental health of different subgroups of individuals confronted with job loss.

Research on grief, depression, and anxiety reactions following job loss is sparse.Latent class analysis revealed four distinct classes.Job loss circumstances and coping strategies (but not socio-demographic and work variables) were associated with class membership.