[Cognitive neuroscience of aging: explanatory models]. / Neurociencia cognitiva del envejecimiento: modelos explicativos.

The aim of the cognitive neuroscience of aging is the study of brain activity and the cognitive processes associated with age. In order to understand the dynamics of neurocognitive activity in older people, the present review highlights four explanatory models. The first one (HAROLD) highlights brain bilaterality, mainly in the pre-frontal cortex. The second paradigm (PASA) places special emphasis on neuronal polarisation (anterior-posterior). The third model (CRUNCH) relates the manifest activity of the brain to the level of complexity of the task. The last one (ELSA) emphasises the spatial and temporal distribution of brain activity in the different phases of recovery. Although different in their content, the four explanatory models are perfectly compatible with the findings reported by neuroimaging techniques, suggesting the use of compensation strategies and cognitive reserve for interventions that may help to optimise the performance of older people.

[Memory assessment by means of virtual reality: its present and future]. / Evaluacion de la memoria mediante realidad virtual: presente y futuro.

The human memory is a complex cognitive system whose close relationship with executive functions implies that, in many occasions, a mnemonic deficit comprises difficulties to operate with correctly stored contents. Traditional memory tests, more focused in the information storage than in its processing, may be poorly sensitive both to subjects' daily life functioning and to changes originated by rehabilitation programs. In memory assessment, there is plenty evidence with regards to the need of improving it by means of tests which offer a higher ecological validity, with information that may be presented in various sensorial modalities and produced in a simultaneous way. Virtual reality reproduces three-dimensional environments with which the patient interacts in a dynamic way, with a sense of immersion in the environment similar to the presence and exposure to a real environment, and in which presentation of such stimuli, distractors and other variables may be systematically controlled. The current review aims to go deeply into the trajectory of neuropsychological assessment of memory based in virtual reality environments, making a tour through existing tests designed for assessing learning, prospective, episodic and spatial memory, as well as the most recent attempts to perform a comprehensive evaluation of all memory components.

TITLE: Evaluacion de la memoria mediante realidad virtual: presente y futuro.La memoria humana es un complejo sistema cognitivo cuya estrecha relacion con las funciones ejecutivas hace que, en muchas ocasiones, un deficit mnemico lleve aparejadas dificultades para operar con contenidos correctamente almacenados. Los tests de memoria tradicionales, que se centran mas en el almacenamiento de la informacion que en su procesamiento, pueden ser poco sensibles tanto al funcionamiento cotidiano de los sujetos como a los cambios originados por los programas de rehabilitacion. En la evaluacion de la memoria hay abundante evidencia acerca de la necesidad de mejorarla mediante tests que ofrezcan una mayor validez ecologica, con informacion que pueda presentarse en varias modalidades sensoriales y que se produzca de modo simultaneo, tal como sucede en la vida real, con la presencia gradual y controlada de distractores. La realidad virtual reproduce entornos tridimensionales con los que el paciente interactua de forma dinamica, con una sensacion de inmersion en el entorno similar a la presencia y exposicion a un entorno real, y en los que se puede controlar de forma sistematica la presentacion de dichos estimulos, distractores y otras variables. La presente revision tiene como objetivo profundizar en la trayectoria de la evaluacion neuropsicologica de la memoria basada en entornos de realidad virtual, y realiza un recorrido por los tests existentes para la evaluacion del aprendizaje, memoria prospectiva, episodica y espacial, asi como por los intentos mas recientes de realizar una evaluacion integral de todos los componentes de la memoria.

Protocolo de evaluación neuropsicológica para adultos en cirugía de la epilepsia / Neuropsychological assessment protocol for adults in epilepsy surgery

INTRODUCCIÓN: La epilepsia refractaria conlleva la intratabilidad de las crisis, por lo que una de las intervenciones que permiten su eliminación o la disminución del número de crisis es la neurocirugía. DESARROLLO: Se plantea la propuesta de un modelo de evaluación neuropsicológica dirigida a la medición del rendimiento cognitivo de pacientes adultos candidatos a cirugía de la epilepsia. Se propone un protocolo abierto, en consonancia con las propuestas más señaladas en los distintos centros de referencia para la epilepsia, dirigido a la obtención de una línea de base del rendimiento cognitivo global, la reserva cognitiva y la dominancia manual, así como procesos cognitivos como la atención, el lenguaje, las habilidades visuoconstructivas y manipulativas, la memoria y las funciones ejecutivas, entre otros, sin prescindir de la exploración psicopatológica y la calidad de vida del paciente, de forma que permita contribuir, junto con los resultados de otras especialidades diagnósticas, a la localización y minimización de las secuelas cognitivas secundarias a la intervención quirúrgica sobre el foco epiléptico, así como a la facilitación de información al equipo médico responsable del caso y a pacientes y familiares sobre las posibilidades y el pronóstico de la intervención. Es necesario disponer de un arsenal de técnicas y contar con un adecuado consenso a la hora de realizar la valoración de los datos obtenidos. CONCLUSIONES: Se propone un modelo de evaluación que permite obtener información del perfil neuropsicológico del paciente candidato a cirugía de la epilepsia, abierto a la discusión y que sirva de modelo para el debate al resto de centros de referencia de la epilepsia

INTRODUCTION: Refractory epilepsy means that the seizures are untreatable, and therefore one of the interventions that makes it possible to eliminate them or to accomplish a reduction in the number of seizures is neurosurgery. DEVELOPMENT: A neuropsychological evaluation model aimed at measuring the cognitive performance of adult patients who are candidates for epilepsy surgery is proposed. In line with the proposals most frequently put forward by the various reference centres for epilepsy, an open protocol is proposed that is aimed at obtaining a baseline of overall cognitive performance, cognitive reserve and manual dominance, as well as cognitive processes such as attention, language, visuoconstructive and manipulative skills, memory and executive functions, among others, without neglecting the psychopathological examination and the patient's quality of life. This, together with the results of other diagnostic specialities, will contribute to the localisation and minimisation of the cognitive sequelae secondary to the surgical intervention on the epileptic focus, as well as to providing information to the medical team responsible for the case and to patients and relatives about the possibilities and prognosis of the intervention. It is necessary to have a battery of techniques and an adequate consensus when evaluating the data obtained. CONCLUSIONS: An assessment model is proposed that allows information to be obtained about the neuropsychological profile of the candidate for epilepsy surgery, which is open to debate and serves as a model for discussion by the other epilepsy reference centres

[Sluggish cognitive tempo: an updated review]. / Tempo cognitivo lento: una revision actualizada.

INTRODUCTION: The study of sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) arose largely from research carried out on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This construct is defined by a range of behavioural symptoms such as the appearance of drowsiness, daydreaming, physical hypoactivity, little initiative, lethargy and apathy. DEVELOPMENT: The construct of SCT is reviewed by means of recently published papers on its clinical characteristics, associated symptoms, evaluation, prevalence, aetiology, comorbidity, neuropsychological profiles and treatment. The latest studies propose that SCT should be understood as a cluster of symptoms that is distinct from ADHD. Although there is no clear consensus on the matter, the evidence is becoming increasingly more consistent and endows SCT with a high degree of external validity, associating it with internalising symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: We believe the different subtypes of ADHD must be grounded in attentional conceptual models. Hence, the attentional guidance network would be related with SCT, the vigilance or sustained attention network would be linked with the inattentive subtype of ADHD, and executive attention would be involved in the combined subtype of ADHD. The evidence obtained to date, including this review, supports the idea that SCT is an attention disorder distinct from ADHD but, like any dimensional disorder, it can overlap with it in around half the cases.

TITLE: Tempo cognitivo lento: una revision actualizada.Introduccion. El estudio del tempo cognitivo lento (TCL) surgio en gran parte de las investigaciones del trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad (TDAH). Este constructo se define con una gama de sintomas conductuales, como apariencia de somnolencia, soñar despierto, hipoactividad fisica, pobre iniciativa, letargo y apatia. Desarrollo. Se revisa el constructo de TCL a traves de articulos recientemente publicados al respecto sobre caracteristicas clinicas, sintomas asociados, evaluacion, prevalencia, etiologia, comorbilidad, perfiles neuropsicologicos y tratamiento. Los trabajos mas actuales proponen entender el TCL como un cluster de sintomas distintivo del TDAH. Aunque no hay un consenso claro, los datos son cada vez mas consistentes y dotan de gran validez externa al TCL, asociandolo con sintomas internalizantes. Conclusiones. Consideramos necesario anclar los diferentes subtipos de TDAH en modelos conceptuales atencionales. Asi, la red de orientacion atencional se relacionaria con el TCL, la red de vigilancia o atencion sostenida con el TDAH subtipo inatento, y la atencion ejecutiva seria la implicada en el TDAH subtipo combinado. La evidencia hasta la fecha, incluyendo esta revision, apoya la idea de que el TCL es un trastorno de atencion diferenciado del TDAH, pero que, como cualquier trastorno dimensional, puede solaparse con el aproximadamente en la mitad de los casos.

[Proposal for a neuropsychological cognitive evaluation battery for detecting and distinguishing between mild cognitive impairment and dementias]. / Propuesta de una bateria neuropsicologica de evaluacion cognitiva para detectar y discriminar deterioro cognitivo leve y demencias.

The early and etiological diagnosis of dementia syndrome in the clinical practice remains the neuropsychological assessment through the study of the cognitive profile of the patient and the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the functions, both impaired and preserved. In this article, we describe a neuropsychological battery of cognitive evaluation to detect mild cognitive impairment in any of its clinical forms and dementia; as well as discriminate between the main profiles of dementia syndrome, based on its topographic and etiological classification (frontotemporal, temporoparietal, subcortical, cortico-subcortical and multifocal). This battery is implemented in the neuropsychological assessment specialized surgery from Navarra Hospital Center Neurology Service. Not only the tests that form the assessment protocol are presented, but also the theoretical models that are considered more appropriate for their interpretation.

TITLE: Propuesta de una bateria neuropsicologica de evaluacion cognitiva para detectar y discriminar deterioro cognitivo leve y demencias.El diagnostico precoz y etiologico del sindrome demencial en la practica clinica sigue siendo la evaluacion neuropsicologica mediante el estudio del perfil cognitivo del paciente y el analisis cualitativo y cuantitativo de las funciones, tanto deficitarias como preservadas. En este articulo se describe una bateria neuropsicologica de evaluacion cognitiva para detectar deterioro cognitivo leve en cualquiera de sus formas clinicas y demencia, y para discriminar entre los principales perfiles del sindrome demencial en funcion de su clasificacion topografica y etiologia (frontotemporales, temporoparietales, subcorticales, corticosubcorticales y multifocales). Esta bateria se implementa en la consulta especializada de evaluacion neuropsicologica del Servicio de Neurologia del Complejo Hospitalario de Navarra. Se exponen no solo las pruebas que componen el protocolo de evaluacion, sino los modelos teoricos que se consideran mas apropiados para su interpretacion.

[Spanish validation of the Iowa Rating Scale for Personality Change (IRSPC) for the appraisal of changes in personality in patients with acquired brain injury]. / Validacion española de la Iowa Rating Scale for Personality Change (IRSPC) para la valoracion de los cambios de personalidad en pacientes con daño cerebral adquirido.

INTRODUCTION: The Iowa Rating Scale for Personality Change (IRSPC) presents some features (puts an emphasis on the motivational and emotional functions; evaluates the 'cognitive' executive functions in the daily life; estimates the premorbid personality; values the informant reliability) that make it use really interesting for both clinical and research. AIM: The aim of this study was the Spanish validation of the IRSPC, which evaluates the 'personality changes' secondary to prefrontal cortex brain injury and particularly those located in the ventromedial area. PATIENTS AND METHODS: After the translation and the Spanish adaptation of the scale guide, we carried out a validation study with 31 patients suffering from traumatic brain injury, getting good reliability. RESULTS: The data obtained by measuring the internal consistency of the IRSPC and the inter rater and test-retest reliability support this statement. The instrument validity is confirmed by the results of the concurrent validity (comparing IRSPC and Neuropsychiatric Inventory) and the construct validity (scores before and after the trauma). CONCLUSIONS: The IRSPC is a valid and reliable instrument for clinical examination in the context of a comprehensive evaluation of the symptoms resulting from neurological diseases and particularly from the ventromedial prefrontal cortex injury.

TITLE: Validacion española de la Iowa Rating Scale for Personality Change (IRSPC) para la valoracion de los cambios de personalidad en pacientes con daño cerebral adquirido.Introduccion. La Iowa Rating Scale for Personality Change (IRSPC) presenta una serie de caracteristicas (enfasis en las funciones motivacionales y emocionales, evaluacion de las funciones ejecutivas 'cognitivas' en la vida cotidiana, estimacion de la personalidad premorbida, valoracion de la fiabilidad del informador) que hacen muy interesante su utilizacion tanto en la clinica como en la investigacion. Objetivo. Validar en castellano la IRSPC para la evaluacion de los 'cambios de personalidad' secundarios a las lesiones cerebrales de la corteza prefrontal en general y del area ventromedial en particular. Pacientes y metodos. Tras el proceso de traduccion y adaptacion de la guia de la escala al castellano, se realizo un estudio de validacion con 31 pacientes con daño cerebral traumatico y se obtuvieron unos resultados de fiabilidad muy adecuados. Resultados. Los resultados obtenidos al medir la consistencia interna de la IRSPC y los coeficientes de fiabilidad interobservadores y test-retest apoyan dicha afirmacion. La validez del instrumento es confirmada por la validez concurrente (comparandolo con el inventario neuropsiquiatrico) y la validez de constructo (comparando las puntuaciones de los pacientes antes y despues del traumatismo). Conclusiones. La IRSPC es un instrumento fiable y valido para la exploracion clinica, en el contexto de una evaluacion integral de los sintomas derivados de las enfermedades neurologicas en general, y en particular de aquellas en las que se encuentra involucrada la corteza prefrontal ventromedial.

[A descriptive study of the neuropsychological and psychopathological profile in patients with type 1 myotonic dystrophy]. / Estudio descriptivo del perfil neuropsicologico y psicopatologico en pacientes con distrofia miotonica tipo 1.

INTRODUCTION: Type 1 myotonic dystrophy (MD-1) or Steinert disease is a multisystemic progressive disorder. Studies have shown cognitive deficits, depressive symptoms and a high incidence of anxiety personality traits that compromise both the functionality and the quality of life of these patients. AIM: To describe the cognitive and psychopathological profile of a sample of patients with the adult variant of MD-1. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A sample of 27 patients diagnosed with MD-1 was selected from those being followed up in the neurology service of the Complejo Hospitalario de Navarra. Eligibility criteria were age under 50 years and the absence of any other pathology or physical condition that prevented them from performing the psychological evaluation. A neuropsychological evaluation battery specifically designed for this kind of pathology was used, together with psychopathological and functionality measures. RESULTS: The neuropsychological evaluation revealed mainly deficits in visual-constructional and visuospatial skills, alternating attention and in other-reported dysexecutive signs and symptoms. The group of patients did not present any clinically significant symptoms of depression or anxiety, but did score high on obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, paranoid ideation and psychoticism. The results point towards a deterioration in functionality. CONCLUSIONS: In the integral approach to MD-1, the characterisation and developmental monitoring of the cognitive, psychopathological and personality profile, as well as the level of functionality, all contribute to an improvement in the quality of life of these patients.

TITLE: Estudio descriptivo del perfil neuropsicologico y psicopatologico en pacientes con distrofia miotonica tipo 1.Introduccion. La distrofia miotonica tipo 1 (DM-1) o enfermedad de Steinert es un trastorno multisistemico y progresivo. Se han encontrado deficits cognitivos, clinica depresiva y alta incidencia de rasgos de personalidad ansiosos con afectacion tanto en la funcionalidad como en la calidad de vida de estos pacientes. Objetivo. Describir el perfil cognitivo y psicopatologico de una muestra de pacientes con la variante adulta de DM-1. Pacientes y metodos. Se selecciono una muestra de 27 pacientes con diagnostico de DM-1 en seguimiento en el Servicio de Neurologia del Complejo Hospitalario de Navarra. Los criterios de inclusion fueron tener menos de 50 anos y descartar cualquier otra patologia o condicion fisica que impidiese realizar la evaluacion psicologica. Se utilizo una bateria de evaluacion neuropsicologica especificamente disenada para este tipo de patologia, ademas de medidas de psicopatologia y funcionalidad. Resultados. La evaluacion neuropsicologica reflejo, principalmente, deficits en habilidades visuoconstructivas, visuoespaciales, atencion alternante y en sintomatologia disejecutiva heteroinformada. El grupo de pacientes no presento sintomatologia depresiva ni ansiosa clinicamente significativa, pero si puntuaciones elevadas en obsesion-compulsion, sensibilidad interpersonal, ideacion paranoide y psicoticismo. Los resultados orientaron hacia un deterioro en la funcionalidad. Conclusiones. En el abordaje integral de la DM-1, la caracterizacion y el seguimiento evolutivo del perfil cognitivo, psicopatologico y de personalidad, asi como del nivel de funcionalidad, contribuyen a la mejora de la calidad de vida de estos pacientes.

[Empathy and moral judgements in the elderly population]. / Empatia y juicios morales en población anciana.

INTRODUCTION: Social cognition refers to mental processes that operate in situations of social interaction and facilitate adjustment and functioning in such scenarios. AIM: To study the empathic response in two groups of older people and their relationship to emotional intelligence and moral judgment. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We enrolled 60 subjects divided into two groups of 30 subjects each completed a battery of tests: TMMS-24, DEX, IRI and moral dilemmas. RESULTS. In the dimension of the IRI perspective taking older group scored significantly less than the middle age group (U = 279; p < 0.05). In all other variables, no statistically significant differences were found. CONCLUSIONS: The results show the absence of a generalized deficit in social cognition in the elderly sample evaluated. However, differences were observed based on age on empathy and executive performance: over time a progressive impairment in theory of mind and a decline in the general empathic capacity occur. With regard to emotional intelligence, the elderly evaluated show a correct perception and understanding of their emotions even report a poorer ability to manage and regulate their emotions.

TITLE: Empatia y juicios morales en poblacion anciana.Introduccion. La cognicion social se refiere a los procesos mentales que operan en situaciones de interaccion social y facilitan el ajuste y el funcionamiento en tales escenarios. Objetivo. Estudiar la respuesta empatica en dos grupos de personas mayores y su relacion con la inteligencia emocional y el juicio moral. Sujetos y metodos. Participaron 60 sujetos divididos en dos grupos de 30 cada uno, que cumplimentaron una bateria de pruebas: Trait Meta-Mood Scale-24, cuestionario disejecutivo, indice de reactividad interpersonal (IRI) y dilemas morales. Resultados. En la dimension de toma de perspectiva del IRI, el grupo de edad avanzada puntuo significativamente menos que el grupo de mediana edad (U = 279; p < 0,05). En el resto de variables no se encontraron diferencias estadisticamente significativas. Conclusiones. Los resultados muestran la ausencia de un deficit generalizado en la cognicion social en la muestra de ancianos evaluada. Sin embargo, se aprecian diferencias en funcion de la edad en la empatia y en el rendimiento ejecutivo: con el paso del tiempo tiene lugar un deterioro progresivo en la teoria de la mente y un declive en la capacidad empatica general. Con respecto a la inteligencia emocional, los ancianos evaluados manifiestan una adecuada percepcion y comprension de sus emociones, aunque informan de una peor capacidad para manejar y regular sus afectos.

Enfermedad de Lafora: revisión de la bibliografía / Lafora disease: a review of the literature

Introducción. La enfermedad de Lafora es una forma de epilepsia mioclónica progresiva de herencia autosómica recesiva, de inicio en la infancia tardía o en la adolescencia, y producida por mutaciones de pérdida de función en los genes EPM2A o EPM2B, los cuales codifican para las proteínas laforina y malina, respectivamente. Desarrollo. Los principales síntomas de la enfermedad, que empeoran progresivamente, son mioclonías, crisis occipitales, crisis tonicoclónicas generalizadas, deterioro cognitivo, síntomas neuropsiquiátricos y ataxia. El curso es progresivo y fatal. Patológicamente, se caracteriza por la presencia de depósitos de poliglucosanos (denominados cuerpos de Lafora) en el cerebro, el hígado, el músculo y las glándulas sudoríparas. El diagnóstico de enfermedad de Lafora se realiza mediante hallazgos clínicos, electrofisiológicos, histológicos y genéticos. En la actualidad no existe un tratamiento que erradique o prevenga su desarrollo. Tradicionalmente, se utilizan fármacos antiepilépticos para el tratamiento de las mioclonías y las convulsiones, aunque aparecen resistencias a éstas. Conclusiones. La enfermedad de Lafora es una patología rara que, pese a su baja prevalencia, supone graves consecuencias para los pacientes y sus cuidadores. Así pues, resulta necesario continuar la investigación para clarificar los mecanismos subyacentes y desarrollar nuevos tratamientos paliativos y curativos de la enfermedad

Introduction. Lafora disease is autosomal recessive progressive myoclonus epilepsy with late childhood-to teenage-onset caused by loss-of-function mutations in either EPM2A or EPM2B genes encoding laforin or malin, respectively. Development. The main symptoms of Lafora disease, which worsen progressively, are: myoclonus, occipital seizures, generalized tonic-clonic seizures, cognitive decline, neuropsychiatric syptoms and ataxia with a fatal outcome. Pathologically, Lafora disease is characterized by the presence of polyglucosans deposits (named Lafora bodies), in the brain, liver, muscle and sweat glands. Diagnosis of Lafora disease is made through clinical, electrophysiological, histological and genetic findings. Currently, there is no treatment to cure or prevent the development of the disease. Traditionally, antiepileptic drugs are used for the management of myoclonus and seizures. However, patients become drug-resistant after the initial stage. Conclusions. Lafora disease is a rare pathology that has serious consequences for patients and their caregivers despite its low prevalence. Therefore, continuing research in order to clarify the underlying mechanisms and hopefully developing new palliative and curative treatments for the disease is necessary

Déficits ejecutivos y trastornos del neurodesarrollo en la infancia y en la adolescencia / Executive function deficits and neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood and adolescence

Introducción: Actualmente, en el Manual diagnóstico y estadístico de los trastornos mentales (DSM-5) se incluye una nueva categoría diagnóstica referida a trastornos del neurodesarrollo. Son diversos los trastornos del neurodesarrollo que, aun siendo entidades diagnósticas independientes, comparten manifestaciones comunes a las que presentan personas con daño cerebral o disfunción en la corteza prefrontal, es decir, presentan diferentes alteraciones de las funciones ejecutivas. Desarrollo: El propósito de este estudio es ofrecer una visión de los hallazgos actuales sobre el funcionamiento ejecutivo en niños y jóvenes con diferentes trastornos del neurodesarrollo: trastorno del espectro autista, trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad y trastorno específico del aprendizaje. Con este objetivo se revisaron 27 artículos. Los resultados de los análisis indican una asociación estadísticamente significativa entre dimensión de flexibilidad y trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad (W de Wilcoxon = 123; p = 0,011) y dimensión de flexibilidad y trastorno del espectro autista (W de Wilcoxon = 101,5; p = 0,003), y ausencia de asociación estadísticamente significativa entre las diferentes dimensiones evaluadas y trastorno específico del aprendizaje. Conclusiones: Las dimensiones ejecutivas se encuentran afectadas en los diferentes trastornos del neurodesarrollo en grado variable. Podemos hipotetizar la existencia de un continuo en las dimensiones que se encuentran afectadas en los diferentes trastornos del neurodesarrollo; en ocasiones, es complejo establecer límites categoriales cuando se comparan distintos trastornos

Introduction: Currently, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) has new criteria that include a diagnostic reference to neurodevelopmental disorders. Neurodevelopmental disorders are diverse, and even though they are independent diagnostic entities they share common manifestations in people with brain damage or dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex; that is, neurodevelopmental disorders present different alterations in executive functions. Development: The aim of the present study was to offer an overview of the recent findings on executive functioning in children, adolescents and young adults with different neurodevelopmental disorders: autistic spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and specific learning disorder. Hence, with this objective, 27 studies from the literature were reviewed. The results indicate a statistically significant association between the dimension of flexibility and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (W of Wilcoxon = 123.0; p = 0.011), and flexibility with autistic spectrum disorder (W of Wilcoxon = 101.5; p = 0.003); and absence of a statistically significant association between the different assessed dimensions and specific learning disorder. Conclusions: The dimensions of executive functioning are affected to a variable degree in different neurodevelopmental disorders. We can hypothesis that the dimensions that are affected in the different neurodevelopmental disorders can be characterized in terms of the existence of a continuum, and occasionally those dimensions are too complex to establish categorical limits when comparing different neurodevelopmental disorders

[Ecological validity and multitasking environments in the evaluation of the executive functions]. / Validez ecologica y entornos multitarea en la evaluacion de las funciones ejecutivas.

Evaluation of executive functions is a major issue of neuropsychological assessment, due to the role displayed by these on a cognitive, behavioural and emotional level, and the implication of these functions in daily life functioning. In order to perform a reliable assessment, the strategy traditionally followed for the evaluation of executive functions has been their atomization in different cognitive subprocesses, which is useful in a clinical or a research context. However, in clinical practice it is frequently artificial to disintegrate a global and complex cognitive process, such as executive functions, in a variety of related components; thus, tests designed according to these theoretical processes have low value in clinical procedures (diagnosis, rehabilitation design) due to their poor correspondence with the subject's or patient's clinical reality. The aims of the present work are to revise the concept of ecological validity applied to the evaluation of executive functions, and to perform a critical review of executive functions assessment by means of multitask paradigms as a way to increase the ecological validity and predictive value of the subject's functional performance. After a historical journey around the (low) ecological validity of single-task tests, and the bet in favour of a multitask paradigm for the evaluation of executive functions, up-to-date existing multitask tests are presented meticulously (with their respective advantages and disadvantages). Finally, concrete recommendations about how to develop multitask tests in the future are presented, attending to concrete parameters related to the context, tasks, objectives, rules and scoring.

TITLE: Validez ecologica y entornos multitarea en la evaluacion de las funciones ejecutivas.La valoracion de las funciones ejecutivas es un aspecto central de la evaluacion neuropsicologica. De cara a una evaluacion fiable, la estrategia tradicionalmente seguida para la evaluacion de las funciones ejecutivas ha sido su atomizacion en diferentes subprocesos cognitivos. No obstante, en la practica clinica, frecuentemente resulta artificiosa la disgregacion de un proceso cognitivo global y complejo como este en infinidad de subcomponentes relacionados. Asi, a menudo, las pruebas diseñadas de acuerdo con este paradigma resultan de poco valor para procedimientos clinicos (diagnostico, diseño de la rehabilitacion) por la pobre correspondencia con la realidad clinica del sujeto o paciente. Los objetivos del presente trabajo son revisar el concepto de validez ecologica aplicado a la evaluacion de las funciones ejecutivas y hacer una revision critica de la valoracion de las funciones ejecutivas mediante paradigmas de multitarea como medio de incrementar la validez ecologica y valor predictivo del desempeño funcional del sujeto. Tras un recorrido historico por la (escasa) validez ecologica de los tests monotarea y la apuesta por un paradigma multitarea para la evaluacion de las funciones ejecutivas, se recogen minuciosamente los tests multitarea existentes hasta la fecha (con sus respectivas ventajas e inconvenientes). Se concluye con recomendaciones concretas sobre como desarrollar tests multitarea en el futuro, atendiendo a parametros concretos relacionados con entorno, tareas, objetivos, reglas y puntuaciones.

[Neuropsychological evaluation of the executive functions by means of virtual reality]. / Evaluación neuropsicológica de las funciones ejecutivas mediante realidad virtual.

Executive functions include a wide range of self regulatory functions that allow control, organization and coordination of other cognitive functions, emotional responses and behaviours. The traditional approach to evaluate these functions, by means of paper and pencil neuropsychological tests, shows a greater than expected performance within the normal range for patients whose daily life difficulties would predict an inferior performance. These discrepancies suggest that classical neuropsychological tests may not adequately reproduce the complexity and dynamic nature of real life situations. Latest developments in the field of virtual reality offer interesting options for the neuropsychological assessment of many cognitive processes. Virtual reality reproduces three-dimensional environments with which the patient interacts in a dynamic way, with a sense of immersion in the environment similar to the presence and exposure to a real environment. Furthermore, the presentation of these stimuli, as well as distractors and other variables, may be controlled in a systematic way. Moreover, more consistent and precise answers may be obtained, and an in-depth analysis of them is possible. The present review shows current problems in neuropsychological evaluation of executive functions and latest advances in the consecution of higher preciseness and validity of the evaluation by means of new technologies and virtual reality, with special mention to some developments performed in Spain.

TITLE: Evaluacion neuropsicologica de las funciones ejecutivas mediante realidad virtual.Las funciones ejecutivas engloban un amplio conjunto de funciones de autorregulacion que permiten el control, organizacion y coordinacion de otras funciones cognitivas, respuestas emocionales y comportamientos. El acercamiento tradicional a la hora de evaluar estas funciones, normalmente a traves de tests neuropsicologicos de lapiz y papel, puede mostrar en algunos pacientes un rendimiento mayor de lo esperado o dentro de los limites normales, y, sin embargo, observar dificultades en la vida diaria. Estas discrepancias sugieren que las pruebas neuropsicologicas clasicas puede que no reproduzcan adecuadamente la complejidad y naturaleza dinamica de las situaciones de la vida real. Los ultimos desarrollos en el campo de la realidad virtual ofrecen opciones interesantes en la evaluacion neuropsicologica de muchos procesos cognitivos. La realidad virtual reproduce entornos tridimensionales con los que el paciente interactua de forma dinamica, con una sensacion de inmersion en el entorno similar a la presencia y exposicion a un entorno real. Ademas, se puede controlar de forma sistematica la presentacion de dichos estimulos, asi como de distractores u otras variables. Asimismo, se pueden obtener respuestas mas consistentes y precisas, y permitir un analisis detallado de ellas. La presente revision muestra los problemas actuales de la evaluacion neuropsicologica de las funciones ejecutivas y los ultimos avances en la consecucion de mayor precision y validez en la evaluacion a traves de las nuevas tecnologias y la realidad virtual, haciendo especial mencion a algunos desarrollos llevados a cabo en España.

Modelo de funciones ejecutivas basado en análisis factoriales en población infantil y escolar: metaanálisis / Model of executive functions based on factorial analyses in child and school populations: a meta-analysis

Introducción. Las funciones ejecutivas se definen como un conjunto de habilidades implicadas en diversas actividades que son novedosas para el individuo y que precisan una solución creativa. No es fácil su conceptualización ni la identificación de los factores que las configuran en la población infantil y escolar. Objetivo. Analizar la estructura y los componentes de la función ejecutiva en población preescolar y escolar. Desarrollo. Se revisaron 35 artículos que utilizan diferentes enfoques de análisis factoriales para la extracción de los factores. La probabilidad de ocurrencia de un estudio con tres factores en la etapa de 0 a 12 años es 1,44 veces superior a la de los estudios que se centran en otra estructura. La probabilidad de ocurrencia de un estudio que se centra en la dimensión de flexibilidad en la etapa de 0 a 12 años es 1,45 veces superior a la presencia de un estudio que se centra en cualquier otra dimensión. La asociación entre las diferentes estructuras y dimensiones analizadas con la edad con tau-b de Kendall indica una asociación estadísticamente significativa entre estudios con tres factores y edad (tau = 0,29; p = 0,044) y flexibilidad con la edad (tau = 0,37; p = 0,012). Conclusiones. La diversidad de resultados obtenidos puede atribuirse y está en consonancia con la pluralidad de conceptualizaciones teóricas, pruebas empleadas y análisis estadísticos efectuados. Se puede concluir que actualización/memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad son los procesos ejecutivos más comúnmente encontrados en los modelos factoriales de control ejecutivo en niños de preescolar y escolar

Introduction. Executive functions are defined as a set of skills that are involved in various activities which are novel to the individual and which require a creative solution. It is not easy or straight forward to conceptualise or identify the factors that make up a population of young children. Aim. To analyse the components of executive function due to the clinical implications in different neurodevelopmental disorders in a population-based sample of young children. Development. From the body of literature, 35 published papers that used different factor analysis approaches for factor extraction were reviewed. The probability of a study with three factors being undertaken in the stage between 0 to 12 years is 1.44 times higher than studies being undertaken with some focus on another structure. The probability of a study being undertaken that focuses on the Flexibility dimension in the stage between 0 to 12 years is 1.45 times higher than a study being undertaken that focuses on any other dimension. The association between the different structures and dimensions that are analysed with respect to age using the Kendall tau-b indicates a statistically significant association between: studies with three factors and age (tau = 0.29; p = 0.044) and flexibility with age (tau = 0.37; p = 0.012). Conclusions. The diversity of the obtained results can be attributed to, and is in line with, the plurality of theoretical conceptualisations, tests used and statistical analyzes carried out. It can be concluded that working memory, inhibition and flexibility are the executive processes most commonly found in the factorial models of executive control in young children and adolescents

[Professional career, disability and dependence after acquired brain injury: a prospective study in the two years following the brain injury]. / Trayectoria laboral, discapacidad y dependencia tras daño cerebral adquirido: estudio prospectivo en los dos años siguientes a la lesion cerebral.

AIMS: The purpose of the current study is to analyze the labor trajectory, grade of disability and degree of dependence ecognized in a group of people with acquired brain injury with difference types and severity of injuries and with memory deficit as the main cognitive sequel, over a period of two years after the injury and to explore which premorbid clinical and demographic variables related to the brain injury are predictors of the return to work. PATIENTS AND METHODS: 129 subjects (aged 18-80 years), who were attended by the Neuropsychology and Neuropsychiatry Department of Navarra's Hospital. Qualitative variables were compared using the Chi square test and means were compared using Student t test and to determine the correlation between continuing variables we used Pearson's correlation coefficient. RESULTS: 17.7% returned to work one year after and 25% two years after. The return to work was related to high levels of education. Disability was recognized by 85% of applicants, to psychological factors or physical and psychological in 89% of them. In 77% of applicants was recognized the level of dependence. CONCLUSIONS: Results confirm the big impact of acquired brain injury on the career path two years later, in their interaction with their environment and in their level of independence. One of the factors that explain this impact is the memory deficits.

TITLE: Trayectoria laboral, discapacidad y dependencia tras daño cerebral adquirido: estudio prospectivo en los dos años siguientes a la lesion cerebral.Objetivos. Analizar la trayectoria laboral, el grado de discapacidad y el grado de dependencia reconocidos en una muestra de sujetos con daño cerebral adquirido de diferentes etiologias y que presentan deficit de memoria como secuela cognitiva principal, durante un periodo de dos años tras la lesion original, y examinar que variables sociodemograficas, datos clinicos premorbidos y relacionados con la lesion cerebral predicen el exito en la incorporacion laboral. Pacientes y metodos. Muestra de 129 pacientes, de 18 a 80 años, atendidos en el Servicio de Neuropsicologia y Neuro­psiquiatria del Complejo Hospitalario de Navarra, con deficits de memoria objetivados con tests psicometricos. Las diferencias entre variables discretas se analizaron con el test de chi al cuadrado, para analizar las existentes entre dos grupos en cuanto a variables cuantitativas, se utilizo el test t de Stutent y para calcular la correlacion entre variables continuas, el coeficiente de correlacion de Pearson. Resultados. El 17,7% retoma la actividad laboral al año y el 25% a los dos años. Lo anterior se relaciono con un mayor nivel educativo. Se reconocio la discapacidad al 85% de los solicitantes, por factores psiquicos o fisicos y psiquicos en el 89% de los mismos. Al 77% de los solicitantes se le reconocio el nivel de dependencia. Conclusiones. El daño cerebral adquirido genera un fuerte impacto en la trayectoria laboral, la interaccion con el ambiente y el nivel de autonomia. Entre los factores que explican este impacto es reseñable el deficit de memoria.

Evaluación del control inhibitorio verbal con el test de Stroop en primeros episodios de psicosis con experiencia de trauma en la infancia / Evaluation of verbal inhibitory control with the Stroop Test in early episodes of psychosis with the experience of traumatic events in infancy

Introducción. Los datos aportados por la experiencia clínica evidencian la elevada prevalencia de experiencias traumáticas en sujetos que desarrollan psicosis. No obstante, queda mucho por examinar sobre el efecto de las experiencias traumáticas en su desarrollo y gravedad. El test de Stroop mide la inhibición cognitiva verbal, una función ejecutiva que permite frenar una respuesta automatizada y posibilita la inhibición de comportamientos alternativos a los ya aprendidos, en función de las demandas. Objetivo. Examinar la relación entre la experiencia subjetiva de trauma, el control inhibitorio verbal medido con el test de Stroop y la gravedad del diagnóstico a los seis meses desde el inicio de la enfermedad en sujetos con un primer episodio psicótico. Pacientes y métodos. La muestra estuvo formada por 119 pacientes del «Programa Asistencial para Fases Iniciales de Psicosis» del Hospital Universitario Marqués de Valdecilla. Las variables de interés fueron el test de Stroop y el Childhood Trauma Questionnaire como parte del protocolo de evaluación neuropsicológica de dicho programa. Resultados. Se obtuvieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en control inhibitorio verbal y se encontró un mayor número de sujetos con alto control inhibitorio cuando el trauma referido fue de baja intensidad. Conclusiones. Estos datos confirman la relación entre intensidad de la experiencia traumática en la infancia y alteración del control inhibitorio verbal en personas con primer episodio psicótico, aunque no permiten concluir una mayor gravedad del diagnóstico a los seis meses del inicio de la psicosis en personas con experiencias traumáticas de mayor intensidad

Introduction. Data from clinical experience highlight the high prevalence of traumatic experiences in subjects with schizophrenia spectrum disorder. However, much is left to examine about the effect of traumatic experiences in the development and severity of psychosis. The Stroop Test assess the verbal response inhibition, an executive function which allows to stop an automatic response and makes possible the inhibition of new behaviours, depending on the situation. Aim. To examine the relationship between subjective experience of trauma, verbal response inhibition in the Stroop Test, and severity of the diagnosis at six months from the onset of the disease, in patients with first episode psychosis. Patients and methods. Data were obtained from a longitudinal intervention program of first-episode of psychosis (PAFIP) conducted at the University Hospital Marqués de Valdecilla, Spain. The variables of interest in the present study were the Stroop Test and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire as part of the neuropsychological assessment of PAFIP. Results. Statistically significant differences were obtained in verbal response inhibition, being more subjects with high response inhibition when the said trauma was of low intensity. Conclusions. These data support the relationship between intensity of the traumatic experience in childhood and response inhibition dysfunction in people with first episode psychosis, although we cannot conclude a more severe diagnosis at six months from the onset of psychosis in people with traumatic experiences more intense

Neurociencia cognitiva del envejecimiento: modelos explicativos / Cognitive neuroscience of aging: explanatory models

La neurociencia cognitiva del envejecimiento tiene como objeto de estudio la actividad cerebral y los procesos cognitivos asociados a la edad. Con el fin de comprender la dinámica de la actividad neurocognitiva en los adultos mayores, la presente revisión pone de relieve 4 modelos explicativos. El primero de ellos (HAROLD) resalta la bilateralidad cerebral, principalmente, en el córtex prefrontal. El segundo paradigma (PASA) hace especial hincapié en la polarización neuronal (anterior-posterior). El tercer modelo (CRUNCH) relaciona la actividad manifiesta del cerebro con el nivel de complejidad de la tarea. El último de ellos (ELSA) pone el acento en la distribución espacial y temporal de la actividad cerebral en las diferentes fases de la recuperación. Aunque diferentes en su contenido, los 4 modelos explicativos son perfectamente compatibles con los hallazgos reportados por las técnicas de neuroimagen, sugiriendo, de cara a la intervención, la utilización de estrategias de compensación y reserva cognitiva que ayuden a optimizar el rendimiento de los adultos mayores (AU)

The aim of the cognitive neuroscience of aging is the study of brain activity and the cognitive processes associated with age. In order to understand the dynamics of neurocognitive activity in older people, the present review highlights four explanatory models. The first one (HAROLD) highlights brain bilaterality, mainly in the pre-frontal cortex. The second paradigm (PASA) places special emphasis on neuronal polarisation (anterior-posterior). The third model (CRUNCH) relates the manifest activity of the brain to the level of complexity of the task. The last one (ELSA) emphasises the spatial and temporal distribution of brain activity in the different phases of recovery. Although different in their content, the four explanatory models are perfectly compatible with the findings reported by neuroimaging techniques, suggesting the use of compensation strategies and cognitive reserve for interventions that may help to optimise the performance of older people (AU)

[Clinical neuropsychology in perspective: future challenges based on current developments]. / Neuropsicología clínica en perspectiva: retos futuros basados en desarrollos presentes.

INTRODUCTION: New lines of translational, interdisciplinary research are emerging among different fields of the neurosciences, which often point at clinical neuropsychology as the hinge discipline capable of linking the basic findings with their clinical implications and thereby endow them with some meaning for phenomenological experience. AIM: To establish the great lines of progress made in the fields of neuroscience and neuropsychology in recent years, so as to be able to foresee the strategic lines and priorities of neuroscience in the near future. DEVELOPMENT: To achieve this aim, the first step will be to identify the changes of paradigm that have taken place in the areas of neuroscience and psychology in the last two decades. The next step will be to propose new topics and fields of application that these changes in paradigm offer and demand from neuroscience. CONCLUSIONS: The false dichotomies of genes versus environment, mind versus brain, and reason versus emotion are considered, as are the new applications of neuropsychology to the understanding of psychopathological disorders, from the neurodegenerative to neurodevelopment, from 'dirty' drugs to cognitive and affective enhancers.

[Factorial structure of the dysexecutive questionnaire in a sample of the Spanish population with acquired brain injury and memory deficit complaints]. / Estructura factorial del cuestionario disejecutivo en una muestra de población española con daño cerebral adquirido y quejas de déficit de memoria.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: The dysexecutive questionnaire (DEX) has been used to study executive deficits in both clinical samples (both psychiatric and neurological) and non-clinical samples, although agreement on its factorial structure is lacking. The aim of this research is to study that structure in the self-administered version in a sample of the Spanish population with acquired brain injury and memory loss complaints, and to compare that solution with those obtained in other studies. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The questionnaire was administered to 119 subjects with acquired brain injury with different aetiologies (traumatic, vascular, tumours, multiple sclerosis, toxic-metabolic and others). RESULTS: The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.88. All the items showed adequate discriminatory power, except item 15. No relation was found between the total score on the DEX and the age, gender and time elapsed since the injury. A negative correlation between total score and level of schooling was confirmed. The total score does not follow a normal distribution. The five-factor solution accounts for a higher percentage of the total variance than those of two, three and four factors (63.76%). CONCLUSIONS: The Spanish version of the DEX is an instrument that is valid for evaluating general dysexecutive symptoms in subjects with acquired brain injury. The five-factor factorial structure (planning, cognitive control, inhibition, social awareness and impulse control) offers a greater wealth of information because it measures more aspects of the dys-executive pathology and therefore appears to be more useful in the clinical setting. It is advisable to use the questionnaire in an early stage of evaluation or screening and to use it as a complement to the proxy-reported version.

[Empathy disorders in traumatic brain damage]. / Trastornos de la empatia en el dano cerebral traumatico.

INTRODUCTION: Social cognition is a complex theoretical concept that includes many great high level mental functions. Within this concept is included the empathy, which is so significant and relevant to be evaluated separately but it has been one of the least studied areas in traumatic brain injury. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A large sample of patients with a traumatic brain injury has been studied. The aim was to evaluate the decrease of the empathic ability. One of the validated instruments in our area has been used: the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. The study has been completed by using partially the Eslinger's social executors model as we consider that clinic display of the empathic response changes observed in those with a traumatic brain injury are influenced by previous personality and other different factors. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: With regard to the percentage of empathic ability decrease our results are similar to those documented in the few existing studies on this subject. According to the results the Eslinger's social executors model has been confirmed as a suitable model to carry out a longitudinal and analytical study of neuropsychiatric disorders like the empathy. We have realized that the empathic ability in traumatic brain injury is modulated by previous personality and intelligence. Finally, right hemisphere traumatic damage could be a warning signal in posttraumatic social cognition changes.

[White matter in developmental disorders]. / La sustancia blanca en los trastornos del desarrollo.

The white matter is the main connection between different regions of the brain and helps them to work in a unified, coordinated way. Diffusion tensor imaging is an ideal technique with which to study it in order to detect the degree of integrity of these fibres. Nowadays, they are considered to play a significant role in the development and pathophysiology of different developmental disorders, and the aim of this study was to examine this role. On reviewing disorders such as autism, dyslexia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, certain fibres were found to be clearly involved. This was especially the case of the (arcuate) superior longitudinal fasciculus and the temporal-parietal network (related with the regulation of motor and attentional behaviour), the corpus callosum (which ensures the efficient and swift exchange of information between the hemispheres of the brain) and cingulate regions (which would be related with social cognition and self-consciousness).