The Impact of Therapists' Responses to Resistance to Change: A Sequential Analysis of Therapist Client Interactions in Motivational Interviewing.

AIMS: The study aims to examine how therapists trained in motivational interviewing (MI) respond to resistance and whether this has an impact on subsequent client speech. METHODS: Fifty recorded Motivational Enhancement Therapy sessions were examined using a sequential behavioural coding method for speech. Client counter-change talk formed the baseline for coding and categorizing subsequent therapist speech and the following client speech. Transitional analysis identified the probable occurrence of specific therapist and client utterances at each stage. RESULTS: Following client expressed resistance or counter-change talk, MI consistent therapist utterances were most commonly observed. A moderate to strong predictive relationship was found between MI-consistent therapist speech and subsequent client change talk. A moderate predictive relationship was found between therapist MI-consistent behaviours and client ambivalence. A moderate to strong predictive relationship was found between MI-inconsistent therapist speech and subsequent client counter-change talk and a weak negative predictive relationship was found between MI-inconsistent therapist speech and client expressed ambivalence. CONCLUSIONS: In the face of initial expressed resistance to change, MI-consistent therapist speech appears to increase subsequent client utterances regarding intentions to change drinking behaviour.

Exploring treatment attendance and its relationship to outcome in a randomized controlled trial of treatment for alcohol problems: secondary analysis of the UK Alcohol Treatment Trial (UKATT).

AIMS: To identify client characteristics that predict attendance at treatment sessions and to investigate the effect of attendance on outcomes using data from the UK Alcohol Treatment Trial. METHODS: Logistic regression was used to determine whether there were characteristics that could predict attendance and then continuation in treatment. Linear regression was used to explore the effects of treatment attendance on outcomes. RESULTS: There were significant positive relationships between treatment attendance and outcomes at Month 3. At Month 12, these relationships were only significant for dependence and alcohol problems for those randomized to motivational enhancement therapy (MET). There were significant differences between groups in attendance, with MET clients more likely to attend than clients allocated to social behaviour and network therapy (SBNT). MET clients were also more likely to attend all sessions (three sessions) compared with SBNT (eight sessions). MET clients with larger social networks and those with confidence in their ability not to drink excessively were more likely to attend. SBNT clients with greater motivation to change and those with more negative short-term alcohol outcome expectancies were more likely to attend. No significant predictors were found for retention in treatment for MET. For those receiving SBNT, fewer alcohol problems were associated with continuation in treatment. CONCLUSION: Attending more sessions was associated with better outcomes. An interpretation of these findings is that, to improve outcomes, methods should be developed and used to increase attendance rates. Different characteristics were identified that predicted attendance and continuation in treatment for MET and SBNT.

Predicting drinking outcomes: Evidence from the United Kingdom Alcohol Treatment Trial (UKATT).

AIMS: To explore client characteristics that predict drinking outcomes using data from the UK Alcohol Treatment Trial (UKATT). METHODS: Multiple linear regression was used to determine if there were any characteristics, measured before the start of treatment, that could predict drinking outcomes at three and 12months, as measured by percent day abstinent (PDA) and drinks per drinking day (DDD) over the preceding 90days. RESULTS: Lower baseline DDD score and greater confidence to resist drinking predicted lower DDD at both three and twelve months following entry to treatment. In addition to baseline PDA and having greater confidence to resist heavy drinking, female gender, aiming for abstinence, more satisfaction with family life and a social network that included less support for drinking were predictors of percent days abstinent. CONCLUSIONS: Overall the strongest and most consistent predictors of outcome were confidence to avoid heavy drinking and social support for drinking. More predictors were identified for percent of days abstinent than for drinks per drinking day. For percent of days abstinent, a number of client characteristics at baseline consistently predicted outcome at both month three and month twelve.

Development of the Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ): a questionnaire to measure alcohol and opiate dependence in the context of a treatment evaluation package.

The Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ) has been developed as part of a treatment evaluation package. The LDQ is a 10-item, self completion questionnaire designed to measure dependence upon a variety of substances; it has been shown to be understood by users of alcohol and opiates. The questionnaire was designed to be sensitive to change over time and to be sensitive through the range from mild to severe dependence; the follow-up data are insufficient to demonstrate change over time, but are encouraging. It is expected that both clinicians and researchers will find it useful to have a single measure relating to substance use, but not limited by specific substances. All items are scored 0-1-2-3; there are no normative data. The procedure for establishing content validity is described and estimates of concurrent, discriminant and convergent validities are reported; these validities are thought to be satisfactory. A principal components analysis produced a single factor accounting for 64% of the variance. Cronbach's alpha was 0.94. Test-retest reliability was found to be 0.95.

Drug taking in a northern UK city.

Accurate information on illicit drug taking is notoriously difficult to obtain: drug users are not always keen to discuss their drug use unless rapport and trust have been established. Household surveys, able to identify behaviours such as drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes that are common in the majority or a significant minority of the population, are less well able to pick up the illicit behaviour of what remains, in spite of considerable growth, a small minority of the general population. Official figures that exist offer a partial view. Thus to obtain an overall picture of drug taking it is necessary to examine several sources: direct indicators of drug use such as arrests for possession and supply and drug seizures; user reports; indirect measures such as the supply of needles and syringes by pharmacists and other outlets and an analysis of cultural and economic factors which may co-vary with drug taking trends. These sources and others will be examined in an attempt to construct an overview of patterns of drug use in a northern UK city, to discuss some problems arising from it and the response of the community to these problems.

AESOPS: a randomised controlled trial of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of opportunistic screening and stepped care interventions for older hazardous alcohol users in primary care.

BACKGROUND: There is clear evidence of the detrimental impact of hazardous alcohol consumption on the physical and mental health of the population. Estimates suggest that hazardous alcohol consumption annually accounts for 150,000 hospital admissions and between 15,000 and 22,000 deaths in the UK. In the older population, hazardous alcohol consumption is associated with a wide range of physical, psychological and social problems. There is evidence of an association between increased alcohol consumption and increased risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension and haemorrhagic and ischaemic stroke, increased rates of alcohol-related liver disease and increased risk of a range of cancers. Alcohol is identified as one of the three main risk factors for falls. Excessive alcohol consumption in older age can also contribute to the onset of dementia and other age-related cognitive deficits and is implicated in one-third of all suicides in the older population. OBJECTIVE: To compare the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a stepped care intervention against a minimal intervention in the treatment of older hazardous alcohol users in primary care. DESIGN: A multicentre, pragmatic, two-armed randomised controlled trial with an economic evaluation. SETTING: General practices in primary care in England and Scotland between April 2008 and October 2010. PARTICIPANTS: Adults aged ≥ 55 years scoring ≥ 8 on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (10-item) (AUDIT) were eligible. In total, 529 patients were randomised in the study. INTERVENTIONS: The minimal intervention group received a 5-minute brief advice intervention with the practice or research nurse involving feedback of the screening results and discussion regarding the health consequences of continued hazardous alcohol consumption. Those in the stepped care arm initially received a 20-minute session of behavioural change counselling, with referral to step 2 (motivational enhancement therapy) and step 3 (local specialist alcohol services) if indicated. Sessions were recorded and rated to ensure treatment fidelity. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was average drinks per day (ADD) derived from extended AUDIT--Consumption (3-item) (AUDIT-C) at 12 months. Secondary outcomes were AUDIT-C score at 6 and 12 months; alcohol-related problems assessed using the Drinking Problems Index (DPI) at 6 and 12 months; health-related quality of life assessed using the Short Form Questionnaire-12 items (SF-12) at 6 and 12 months; ADD at 6 months; quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) (for cost-utility analysis derived from European Quality of Life-5 Dimensions); and health and social care resource use associated with the two groups. RESULTS: Both groups reduced alcohol consumption between baseline and 12 months. The difference between groups in log-transformed ADD at 12 months was very small, at 0.025 [95% confidence interval (CI)--0.060 to 0.119], and not statistically significant. At month 6 the stepped care group had a lower ADD, but again the difference was not statistically significant. At months 6 and 12, the stepped care group had a lower DPI score, but this difference was not statistically significant at the 5% level. The stepped care group had a lower SF-12 mental component score and lower physical component score at month 6 and month 12, but these differences were not statistically significant at the 5% level. The overall average cost per patient, taking into account health and social care resource use, was £488 [standard deviation (SD) £826] in the stepped care group and £482 (SD £826) in the minimal intervention group at month 6. The mean QALY gains were slightly greater in the stepped care group than in the minimal intervention group, with a mean difference of 0.0058 (95% CI -0.0018 to 0.0133), generating an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of £1100 per QALY gained. At month 12, participants in the stepped care group incurred fewer costs, with a mean difference of -£194 (95% CI -£585 to £198), and had gained 0.0117 more QALYs (95% CI -0.0084 to 0.0318) than the control group. Therefore, from an economic perspective the minimal intervention was dominated by stepped care but, as would be expected given the effectiveness results, the difference was small and not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Stepped care does not confer an advantage over minimal intervention in terms of reduction in alcohol consumption at 12 months post intervention when compared with a 5-minute brief (minimal) intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered as ISRCTN52557360. FUNDING: This project was funded by the NIHR Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 17, No. 25. See the HTA programme website for further project information.

Setting standards for training and competence: the UK alcohol treatment trial.

AIMS: To examine factors that influence the recruitment and training of therapists and their achievement of competence to practise two psychological therapies for alcohol dependence, and the resources required to deliver this. METHODS: The protocol for the UK Alcohol Treatment Trial required trial therapists to be competent in one of the two trial treatments: Social Behaviour and Network Therapy (SBNT) or Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET). Therapists were randomised to practise one or other type of therapy. To ensure standardisation and consistent delivery of treatment in the trial, the trial training centre trained and supervised all therapists. RESULTS: Of 76 therapists recruited and randomised, 72 commenced training and 52 achieved competence to practise in the trial. Length of prior experience did not predict completion of training. However, therapists with a university higher qualification, and medical practitioners compared to other professionals, were more likely to complete. The average number of clients needed to be treated before the trainee achieved competence was greater for MET than SBNT, and there was a longer duration of training for MET. CONCLUSIONS: Training therapists of differing professional backgrounds, randomised to provide a specific therapy type, is feasible. Supervision after initial training is important, and adds to the training costs.

Development of a district training strategy.

This paper reiterates the need for training in addiction for primary care workers and proposes motivational and structural explanatory frameworks to further our understanding of the difficulties in recruitment of staff from the variety of occupational groups to substance misuse training. This analysis is applied to inform the design and delivery of training locally. The basic tenets of a district training strategy are derived from this analysis and the training strategy for the two Leeds District Health Authorities is described. The strategy is based upon identification of the specific occupational needs of each primary care worker group at each stage of their career, and upon the utilization of available resources to fulfil their training needs in the occupation specific context. The different occupational groups have different roles to play in the prevention and management of substance misuse and the specific skills required will be closely tied into their particular role and based upon pre-existing skills. The resources for and methods of implementing the strategy are described.

Laser instrument for detecting water ripple slopes.

An optical instrument for use in the study of wind induced ripple on the water surface of a wind and wave tank is described. The instrument measures the tip angle of the projected surface normal vector in the down-wind and the cross-wind vertical planes independent of water height, thereby allowing studies of wind induced ripple on lower frequency, mechanical waves. Underwater hardware is reduced to one mirror. Each projected angle appears on a separate output channel as an analog voltage. An in situ calibration technique used prior to recording calibrates the over-all system. Sample output records are shown, and system performance is discussed.