A tissue injury sensing and repair pathway distinct from host pathogen defense.

Pathogen infection and tissue injury are universal insults that disrupt homeostasis. Innate immunity senses microbial infections and induces cytokines/chemokines to activate resistance mechanisms. Here, we show that, in contrast to most pathogen-induced cytokines, interleukin-24 (IL-24) is predominately induced by barrier epithelial progenitors after tissue injury and is independent of microbiome or adaptive immunity. Moreover, Il24 ablation in mice impedes not only epidermal proliferation and re-epithelialization but also capillary and fibroblast regeneration within the dermal wound bed. Conversely, ectopic IL-24 induction in the homeostatic epidermis triggers global epithelial-mesenchymal tissue repair responses. Mechanistically, Il24 expression depends upon both epithelial IL24-receptor/STAT3 signaling and hypoxia-stabilized HIF1α, which converge following injury to trigger autocrine and paracrine signaling involving IL-24-mediated receptor signaling and metabolic regulation. Thus, parallel to innate immune sensing of pathogens to resolve infections, epithelial stem cells sense injury signals to orchestrate IL-24-mediated tissue repair.

A phosphate-sensing organelle regulates phosphate and tissue homeostasis.

Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is one of the essential molecules for life. However, little is known about intracellular Pi metabolism and signalling in animal tissues1. Following the observation that chronic Pi starvation causes hyperproliferation in the digestive epithelium of Drosophila melanogaster, we determined that Pi starvation triggers the downregulation of the Pi transporter PXo. In line with Pi starvation, PXo deficiency caused midgut hyperproliferation. Interestingly, immunostaining and ultrastructural analyses showed that PXo specifically marks non-canonical multilamellar organelles (PXo bodies). Further, by Pi imaging with a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based Pi sensor2, we found that PXo restricts cytosolic Pi levels. PXo bodies require PXo for biogenesis and undergo degradation following Pi starvation. Proteomic and lipidomic characterization of PXo bodies unveiled their distinct feature as an intracellular Pi reserve. Therefore, Pi starvation triggers PXo downregulation and PXo body degradation as a compensatory mechanism to increase cytosolic Pi. Finally, we identified connector of kinase to AP-1 (Cka), a component of the STRIPAK complex and JNK signalling3, as the mediator of PXo knockdown- or Pi starvation-induced hyperproliferation. Altogether, our study uncovers PXo bodies as a critical regulator of cytosolic Pi levels and identifies a Pi-dependent PXo-Cka-JNK signalling cascade controlling tissue homeostasis.

Tailoring short-chain sulfur molecules to drive redox dynamics for sulfur-based aqueous battery.

Solid-solid reactions stand out in rechargeable sulfur-based batteries due to the robust redox couples and high sulfur utilization in theory. However, conventional solid-solid reactions in sulfur cathode always present slow reaction kinetics and huge redox polarization due to the low electronic conductivity of sulfur and the generation of various electrochemical inert intermediates. In view of this, it is crucial to improve the electrochemical activity of sulfur cathode and tailor the redox direction. Guided by thermodynamics analysis, short-chain sulfur molecules (S2-4) are successfully synthesized by space-limited domain principle. Unlike conventional cyclic S8 molecules with complex routes in solid-solid reaction, short-chain sulfur molecules not only shorten the length of the redox chain but also inhibit the formation of irreversible intermediates, which brings excellent redox dynamics and reversibility. As a result, the Cu-S battery built by short-chain sulfur molecules can deliver a high reversible capacity of 3,133 mAh g-1. To put this into practice, quasi-solid-state aqueous flexible battery based on short-chain sulfur molecules is also designed and evaluated, showing superior mechanical flexibility and electrochemical property. It indicates that the introduction of short-chain sulfur molecules in rechargeable battery can promote the development and application of high-performance sulfur-based aqueous energy storage systems.

Dual synergistic effects assisting Cu-SeS2 electrochemistry for energy storage.

Selenium sulfide (SeS2) features higher electronic conductivity than sulfur and higher theoretical capacity and lower cost than selenium, attracting considerable interest in energy storage field. Although nonaqueous Li/Na/K-SeS2 batteries are attractive for their high energy density, the notorious shuttle effect of polysulfides/polyselenides and the intrinsic limitations of organic electrolyte have hindered the deployment of this technology. To circumvent these issues, here we design an aqueous Cu-SeS2 battery by encapsulating SeS2 in a defect-enriched nitrogen-doped porous carbon monolith. Except the intrinsic synergistic effect between Se and S in SeS2, the porous structure of carbon matrix has sufficient internal voids to buffer the volume change of SeS2 and provides abundant pathways for both electrons and ions. In addition, the synergistic effect of nitrogen doping and topological defect not only enhances the chemical affinity between reactants and carbon matrix but also offers catalytic active sites for electrochemical reactions. Benefiting from these merits, the Cu-SeS2 battery delivers superior initial reversible capacity of 1,905.1 mAh g-1 at 0.2 A g-1 and outstanding long-span cycling performance over 1,000 cycles at 5 A g-1. This work applies variable valence charge carriers to aqueous metal-SeS2 batteries, providing valuable inspiration for the construction of metal-chalcogen batteries.

Synergistic dual conversion reactions assisting Pb-S electrochemistry for energy storage.

SignificanceBased on the analysis of three thermodynamic parameters of various M-S systems (solubility of metal sulfides [MxSy] in aqueous solution, volume change of the metal-sulfur [M-S] battery system, and the potential of S/MxSy cathode redox couple), an aqueous Pb-S battery operated by synergistic dual conversion reactions (cathode: S⇄PbS, anode: Pb2+⇄PbO2) has been officially reported. Benefitting from the inherent insolubility of PbS and a conversion-type counter electrode, the aqueous Pb-S battery exhibited two advantages: it is shuttle effect free and has a dendrite-free nature. Moreover, the practical value of the Pb-S battery was further certified by the prototype S|Pb(NO3)2ǁZn(NO3)2|Zn hybrid cell, which afforded an energy density of 930.9 Wh kg-1sulfur.

mTORC1-chaperonin CCT signaling regulates m6A RNA methylation to suppress autophagy.

Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1) is a central regulator of cell growth and metabolism that senses and integrates nutritional and environmental cues with cellular responses. Recent studies have revealed critical roles of mTORC1 in RNA biogenesis and processing. Here, we find that the m6A methyltransferase complex (MTC) is a downstream effector of mTORC1 during autophagy in Drosophila and human cells. Furthermore, we show that the Chaperonin Containing Tailless complex polypeptide 1 (CCT) complex, which facilitates protein folding, acts as a link between mTORC1 and MTC. The mTORC1 activates the chaperonin CCT complex to stabilize MTC, thereby increasing m6A levels on the messenger RNAs encoding autophagy-related genes, leading to their degradation and suppression of autophagy. Altogether, our study reveals an evolutionarily conserved mechanism linking mTORC1 signaling with m6A RNA methylation and demonstrates their roles in suppressing autophagy.

An in vivo RNAi screen uncovers the role of AdoR signaling and adenosine deaminase in controlling intestinal stem cell activity.

Metabolites are increasingly appreciated for their roles as signaling molecules. To dissect the roles of metabolites, it is essential to understand their signaling pathways and their enzymatic regulations. From an RNA interference (RNAi) screen for regulators of intestinal stem cell (ISC) activity in the Drosophila midgut, we identified adenosine receptor (AdoR) as a top candidate gene required for ISC proliferation. We demonstrate that Ras/MAPK and Protein Kinase A (PKA) signaling act downstream of AdoR and that Ras/MAPK mediates the major effect of AdoR on ISC proliferation. Extracellular adenosine, the ligand for AdoR, is a small metabolite that can be released by various cell types and degraded in the extracellular space by secreted adenosine deaminase. Interestingly, down-regulation of adenosine deaminase-related growth factor A (Adgf-A) from enterocytes is necessary for extracellular adenosine to activate AdoR and induce ISC overproliferation. As Adgf-A expression and its enzymatic activity decrease following tissue damage, our study provides important insights into how the enzymatic regulation of extracellular adenosine levels under tissue-damage conditions facilitates ISC proliferation.

A cell atlas of the adult Drosophila midgut.

Studies of the adult Drosophila midgut have led to many insights in our understanding of cell-type diversity, stem cell regeneration, tissue homeostasis, and cell fate decision. Advances in single-cell RNA sequencing provide opportunities to identify new cell types and molecular features. We used single-cell RNA sequencing to characterize the transcriptome of midgut epithelial cells and identified 22 distinct clusters representing intestinal stem cells, enteroblasts, enteroendocrine cells (EEs), and enterocytes. This unbiased approach recovered most of the known intestinal stem cells/enteroblast and EE markers, highlighting the high quality of the dataset, and led to insights on intestinal stem cell biology, cell type-specific organelle features, the roles of new transcription factors in progenitors and regional variation along the gut, 5 additional EE gut hormones, EE hormonal expression diversity, and paracrine function of EEs. To facilitate mining of this rich dataset, we provide a web-based resource for visualization of gene expression in single cells. Altogether, our study provides a comprehensive resource for addressing functions of genes in the midgut epithelium.

The role of translationally controlled tumor protein in proliferation of Drosophila intestinal stem cells.

Translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) is a highly conserved protein functioning in multiple cellular processes, ranging from growth to immune responses. To explore the role of TCTP in tissue maintenance and regeneration, we employed the adult Drosophila midgut, where multiple signaling pathways interact to precisely regulate stem cell division for tissue homeostasis. Tctp levels were significantly increased in stem cells and enteroblasts upon tissue damage or activation of the Hippo pathway that promotes regeneration of intestinal epithelium. Stem cells with reduced Tctp levels failed to proliferate during normal tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Mechanistically, Tctp forms a complex with multiple proteins involved in translation and genetically interacts with ribosomal subunits. In addition, Tctp increases both Akt1 protein abundance and phosphorylation in vivo. Altogether, Tctp regulates stem cell proliferation by interacting with key growth regulatory signaling pathways and the translation process in vivo.

Phosphor-Doped Carbon Network Electrocatalyst Enables Accelerated Redox Kinetics of Polysulfides for Sodium-Sulfur Batteries.

Lithium-ion batteries, which have dominated large-scale energy storage for the past three decades, face limitations in energy density and cost. Sulfur, with its impressive capacity of 1675 mAh g-1 and high theoretical energy density of 1274 Wh kg-1, stands out as a promising cathode material, leading to a growing focus on sodium-sulfur (Na-S) batteries as an alternative to address lithium resource scarcity. Nevertheless, the development is restrained by poor conductivity, volume expansion of the sulfur cathode, and the shuttle effect of sodium polysulfides (Na2Sn) in the electrolytes. In this study, a facile method is designed to fabricate phosphor-doped carbon (phos-C), which is then used as a sulfur matrix. This micromesoporous phos-C network enhances sulfur utilization, increases overall cathode conductivity, and effectively mitigates the shuttling of Na2Sn. During the discharge process, phos-C can absorb soluble Na2Sn and increase the conductivity of sulfur, while serving as a reservoir for electrolyte and Na2Sn, thereby preventing their infiltration into the anode and reducing the loss of sodium. As a result, the well-designed sulfur-loaded phos-C (S/phos-C) cathode, employed in the Na-S battery, demonstrates a capacity of 1034 mAh g-1 at 0.1 C (1 C = 1675 mA g-1) and an excellent rate capability of 339 mAh g-1 at 10 C, coupled with a prolonged cycling life up to 2000 cycles at 1 C, exhibiting an ultralow capacity decay rate of 0.013% per cycle. Overall, this study introduces an efficient method for creating long-lasting Na-S batteries.

Gut tumors in flies alter the taste valence of an anti-tumorigenic bitter compound.

The sense of taste is essential for survival, as it allows animals to distinguish between foods that are nutritious from those that are toxic. However, innate responses to different tastants can be modulated or even reversed under pathological conditions. Here, we examined whether and how the internal status of an animal impacts taste valence by using Drosophila models of hyperproliferation in the gut. In all three models where we expressed proliferation-inducing transgenes in intestinal stem cells (ISCs), hyperproliferation of ISCs caused a tumor-like phenotype in the gut. While tumor-bearing flies had no deficiency in overall food intake, strikingly, they exhibited an increased gustatory preference for aristolochic acid (ARI), which is a bitter and normally aversive plant-derived chemical. ARI had anti-tumor effects in all three of our gut hyperproliferation models. For other aversive chemicals we tested that are bitter but do not have anti-tumor effects, gut tumors did not affect avoidance behaviors. We demonstrated that bitter-sensing gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) in tumor-bearing flies respond normally to ARI. Therefore, the internal pathology of gut hyperproliferation affects neural circuits that determine taste valence postsynaptic to GRNs rather than altering taste identity by GRNs. Overall, our data suggest that increased consumption of ARI may represent an attempt at self-medication. Finally, although ARI's potential use as a chemotherapeutic agent is limited by its known toxicity in the liver and kidney, our findings suggest that tumor-bearing flies might be a useful animal model to screen for novel anti-tumor drugs.

Prussian Blue Analogues in Aqueous Batteries and Desalination Batteries.

In the applications of large-scale energy storage, aqueous batteries are considered as rivals for organic batteries due to their environmentally friendly and low-cost nature. However, carrier ions always exhibit huge hydrated radius in aqueous electrolyte, which brings difficulty to find suitable host materials that can achieve highly reversible insertion and extraction of cations. Owing to open three-dimensional rigid framework and facile synthesis, Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) receive the most extensive attention among various host candidates in aqueous system. Herein, a comprehensive review on recent progresses of PBAs in aqueous batteries is presented. Based on the application in different aqueous systems, the relationship between electrochemical behaviors (redox potential, capacity, cycling stability and rate performance) and structural characteristics (preparation method, structure type, particle size, morphology, crystallinity, defect, metal atom in high-spin state and chemical composition) is analyzed and summarized thoroughly. It can be concluded that the required type of PBAs is different for various carrier ions. In particular, the desalination batteries worked with the same mechanism as aqueous batteries are also discussed in detail to introduce the application of PBAs in aqueous systems comprehensively. This report can help the readers to understand the relationship between physical/chemical characteristics and electrochemical properties for PBAs and find a way to fabricate high-performance PBAs in aqueous batteries and desalination batteries.

The Septate Junction Protein Tsp2A Restricts Intestinal Stem Cell Activity via Endocytic Regulation of aPKC and Hippo Signaling.

Hippo signaling and the activity of its transcriptional coactivator, Yorkie (Yki), are conserved and crucial regulators of tissue homeostasis. In the Drosophila midgut, after tissue damage, Yki activity increases to stimulate stem cell proliferation, but how Yki activity is turned off once the tissue is repaired is unknown. From an RNAi screen, we identified the septate junction (SJ) protein tetraspanin 2A (Tsp2A) as a tumor suppressor. Tsp2A undergoes internalization to facilitate the endocytic degradation of atypical protein kinase C (aPKC), a negative regulator of Hippo signaling. In the Drosophila midgut epithelium, adherens junctions (AJs) and SJs are prominent in intestinal stem cells or enteroblasts (ISCs or EBs) and enterocytes (ECs), respectively. We show that when ISCs differentiate toward ECs, Tsp2A is produced, participates in SJ assembly, and turns off aPKC and Yki-JAK-Stat activity. Altogether, our study uncovers a mechanism allowing the midgut to restore Hippo signaling and restrict proliferation once tissue repair is accomplished.

Understanding cellular signaling and systems biology with precision: A perspective from ultrastructure and organelle studies in the Drosophila midgut.

One of the aims of systems biology is to model and discover properties of cells, tissues and organisms functioning as a system. In recent years, studies in the adult Drosophila gut have provided a wealth of information on the cell types and their functions, and the signaling pathways involved in the complex interactions between proliferating and differentiated cells in the context of homeostasis and pathology. Here, we document and discuss how high-resolution ultrastructure studies of organelle morphology have much to contribute to our understanding of how the gut functions as an integrated system.

Oxidative stress induces stem cell proliferation via TRPA1/RyR-mediated Ca2+ signaling in the Drosophila midgut.

Precise regulation of stem cell activity is crucial for tissue homeostasis and necessary to prevent overproliferation. In the Drosophila adult gut, high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been detected with different types of tissue damage, and oxidative stress has been shown to be both necessary and sufficient to trigger intestinal stem cell (ISC) proliferation. However, the connection between oxidative stress and mitogenic signals remains obscure. In a screen for genes required for ISC proliferation in response to oxidative stress, we identified two regulators of cytosolic Ca2+ levels, transient receptor potential A1 (TRPA1) and ryanodine receptor (RyR). Characterization of TRPA1 and RyR demonstrates that Ca2+ signaling is required for oxidative stress-induced activation of the Ras/MAPK pathway, which in turns drives ISC proliferation. Our findings provide a link between redox regulation and Ca2+ signaling and reveal a novel mechanism by which ISCs detect stress signals.

Expression and evolution of the Tiki1 and Tiki2 genes in vertebrates.

Tiki1 is a Wnt protease and antagonist specifically expressed in the Spemann-Mangold Organizer and is required for head formation in Xenopus embryos. Here we report neighbor-joining phylogenetic analysis of vertebrate Tiki genes and their mRNA expression patterns in chick, mouse, and rabbit embryos. Tiki1 and Tiki2 orthologues are highly conserved, and exhibit similar but also different developmental expression patterns among the vertebrate/mammalian species analyzed. The Tiki1 gene is noticeably absent in the rodent lineage, but is present in lagomorphs and all other vertebrate/mammalian species examined. Expression in Hensen's node, the equivalent of the Xenopus Organizer, was observed for Chick Tiki2 and Rabbit Tiki1 and Tiki2. Mouse Tiki2 was detected at low levels at gastrulation and head fold stages, but not in the node. Mouse Tiki2 and chick Tiki1 display similar expression in the dorsal spinal cord. Chick Tiki1 expression was also detected in the surface ectoderm and maxillary bud, while chick Tiki2 was found in the anterior intestinal portal, head mesenchyme and primitive atrium. Our expression analyses provide evidence that Tiki1 and Tiki2 are evolutionarily conserved among vertebrate species and their expression in the Organizer and other regions suggests contributions of these Wnt inhibitors to embryonic patterning, as well as organogenesis. Our analyses further reveal mis-regulation of TIKI1 and TIKI2 in human cancer and diseases.