Emergency communication networks on Twitter during Hurricane Irma: information flow, influential actors, and top messages.

This study combined network analysis with message-level content analysis to investigate patterns of information flow and to examine messages widely distributed on social media during Hurricane Irma of 2017. The results show that while organisational users and media professionals dominated the top 100 information sources, individual citizens played a critical role in information dissemination. Public agencies should increase their retweeting activities and share the information posted by other trustworthy sources; doing so will contribute to the timely exchange of vital information during a disaster. This study also identified the active involvement of nonprofit organisations as information brokers during the post-event stage, indicating the potential for emergency management organisations to integrate their communication efforts into those of nonprofit entities. These findings will inform emergency management practices regarding implementation of communication plans and policies, facilitate the embracement of new partner organisations, and help with establishing and sustaining effective communication ties with a wide range of stakeholders.

Mental models for inclusive, socially-just disaster planning: a multi-community study in Saint Martin after Hurricane Irma.

Local perspectives provide different insights into disaster planning and response as compared to those of experts. Eliciting them, however, can be challenging, particularly for marginalised groups whose viewpoints have historically been excluded from planning processes. Fuzzy cognitive mapping (FCM) provides a semi-quantitative approach to representing the collective understanding or 'mental models' of diverse individuals and communities. This study involved 23 FCM interviews across three neighbourhoods of Saint Martin to comprehend: (i) how individuals' mental models of Hurricane Irma (2017) differ based on their context; (ii) how aligned mental models are with policy and planning documents; and (iii) the implications for the inclusiveness and representativeness of disaster response policies. It found that the residents of different neighbourhoods provided unique insights into the factors driving the social-ecological system, and that official policies aligned closely with priorities. The paper argues that the inclusion of the perspectives of different groups in disaster recovery is essential for an equitable process.

Hurricanes fertilize mangrove forests in the Gulf of Mexico (Florida Everglades, USA).

Hurricanes are recurring high-energy disturbances in coastal regions that change community structure and function of mangrove wetlands. However, most of the studies assessing hurricane impacts on mangroves have focused on negative effects without considering the positive influence of hurricane-induced sediment deposition and associated nutrient fertilization on mangrove productivity and resilience. Here, we quantified how Hurricane Irma influenced soil nutrient pools, vertical accretion, and plant phosphorus (P) uptake after its passage across the Florida Coastal Everglades in September 2017. Vertical accretion from Irma's deposits was 6.7 to 14.4 times greater than the long-term (100 y) annual accretion rate (0.27 ± 0.04 cm y-1). Storm deposits extended up to 10-km inland from the Gulf of Mexico. Total P (TP) inputs were highest at the mouth of estuaries, with P concentration double that of underlying surface (top 10 cm) soils (0.19 ± 0.02 mg cm-3). This P deposition contributed 49 to 98% to the soil nutrient pool. As a result, all mangrove species showed a significant increase in litter foliar TP and soil porewater inorganic P concentrations in early 2018, 3 mo after Irma's impact, thus underscoring the interspecies differences in nutrient uptake. Mean TP loading rates were five times greater in southwestern (94 ± 13 kg ha-1 d-1) mangrove-dominated estuaries compared to the southeastern region, highlighting the positive role of hurricanes as a natural fertilization mechanism influencing forest productivity. P-rich, mineral sediments deposited by hurricanes create legacies that facilitate rapid forest recovery, stimulation of peat soil development, and resilience to sea-level rise.

Local emergency management's use of social media during disasters: a case study of Hurricane Irma.

Governments' use of social media during all phases of emergency management, especially during disasters, has increased dramatically in the past 20 years. Yet, implementation at the local government level in the United States remains haphazard. As technology and the role of social media evolve, there persists a need to understand the socio-technical aspects of social media's employment in times of disaster. This study contributes to the growing social media literature by asking the following questions: what challenges remain and what lessons learned are being institutionalised at the local level of government? A qualitative analysis of 26 after action reports on Hurricane Irma (September 2017) by county, state, and federal governments and a four-hour focus-group session revealed dominant and subdominant themes, including: push/pull information; capacity and technical issues; inconsistent messaging; one-way versus two-way communication; timing of messages; and data collection. The paper concludes by discussing lessons learned, remaining challenges, evidence of organisational learning, and recommendations for future research.

Dynamics of interorganisational emergency communication on Twitter: the case of Hurricane Irma.

This study examines how county-level emergency management offices (EMOs) used Twitter to communicate with other public agencies and non-profit and for-profit organisations before, during, and after Hurricane Irma in 2017. It assesses the strategies that EMOs and other stakeholders employed to communicate risks on Twitter, concluding that its potential has not been fully exploited. EMOs only frequently interacted with a few non-profit and for-profit organisations, despite their involvement in emergency communication. While EMOs and other public agencies emphasised information dissemination and called on citizens to act and be prepared for the hurricane, non-profits tended to stress service and resource-related information, encouraged others to assist with disaster response, and provided emotional support. For-profits, meanwhile, actively addressed customers' concerns through direct two-way communication. Our findings indicate that EMOs should integrate non-profit and for-profit organisations' communication efforts, engaging them in important conversations on Twitter and advocating the use of highly relevant hashtags at different disaster management stages.

How do you build back better so no one is left behind? Lessons from Sint Maarten, Dutch Caribbean, following Hurricane Irma.

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 and the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals call for action to build back better in ways that leave no one behind. At the same time, ensuring a local voice is increasingly central to humanitarian engagement. These aims contrast with limited analysis of how local actors might be supported in these respects during response and recovery, and how far recommendations are specific or generalisable across richer and poorer national contexts. The paper begins by comparing lessons learnt by survivors and community organisations in Sint Maarten, Dutch Caribbean, following a high-income state-led response to Hurricane Irma in 2017 with the priorities of lower income, humanitarian-led endeavours. The differences reveal the importance of economic resources as the basis for individual self-reliance and a fragmented civil society with limited leadership ambitions in Sint Maarten. Strong cross-cultural alignment nevertheless allows for a globally-relevant and yet contextually-sensitive framework for survivor-led action and reconstruction.

Coordinating non-established disaster relief groups: a case study of Hurricane Irma in Florida, United States.

This study examines the role of non-established relief groups (NERGs) and their involvement in the response to Hurricane Irma after it struck the state of Florida, United States, in September 2017. Its principal goal is to discover more about the engagement of NERGs in disaster response, as well as their motivations and their coordination with other emergency management agencies. The findings of a review of after-action reports and the outcomes of interviews with NERGs and other established organisations suggest that these groups often work with previously established networks. Many of the emergent type of NERGs have not worked with any established organisations prior to a disaster; frequently, therefore, they reach out to other emergent groups to acquire information and coordinate relief efforts. Given that emergent actors tend to lack a strict hierarchical structure for decision-making and coordination, there is a need to enhance communication between NERGs and established response bodies.

Conducting an immersive community-based assessment of post-hurricane experience among Puerto Ricans: lived experience of medical ecology in an environmental disaster and migration.

BACKGROUND: Two devastating sequential hurricanes impacted Puerto Rico during September of 2017. The hurricanes were traumatic and created social and ecological upheaval throughout Puerto Rico, and subsequently in communities of Central Florida where affected Puerto Ricans migrated. The 2017 hurricane season exposed and exacerbated previous long-standing socio-political, economic, environmental, and health crises, generating a humanitarian emergency in the country. The consequences of these human-ecological disasters destroyed much of Puerto Rico's residential and environmental infrastructure, displacing thousands of people and resulting in an unprecedented migration to the United States. We report on the lived experience of the investigator team and partnership in conducting community-based formative research subsequent to this disaster, research that aimed to identify salient issues relating to the impact of Hurricanes Irma and María on Puerto Rican communities both in Puerto Rico and in Central Florida. DISCUSSION: The challenges faced during the conduct of this research include but are not limited to (1) emotional distress of participants and team members, (2) access to affected populations, and (3) precarious environmental factors, such as unstable infrastructure. To address these challenges, the researchers applied a Critical Medical Ecological paradigm along with qualitative methods to assist constructing explanatory models while obtaining internally-valid (from the community perspective), cathartic narrative accounts of the lived experience of hurricane survivors. The experience of the research team may help inform other investigators conducting applied research during a humanitarian crisis. CONCLUSION: Lessons learned in this research included: (1) usefulness of applying the Critical Medical Ecological model in the development of the project, (2) incorporating participation and methods that prioritize authenticity, (3) understanding the trauma experience and using study methods sensitive to it, and (4) innovating with best approaches to conduct the study given the challenges in post-hurricane Puerto Rico. These lessons could provide new insights on how to conduct in-depth participatory health research with community members who have been traumatized and - often - displaced. This research also demonstrates the value of pre-existing partnerships, critical consciousness in the field team, and medical ecological modeling as experiential for organizing complex, inter-related, multi-level variables that explain community and individual impact of environmental disasters.

Melioidosis after Hurricanes Irma and Maria, St. Thomas/St. John District, US Virgin Islands, October 2017.

We report 2 cases of melioidosis in women with diabetes admitted to an emergency department in the US Virgin Islands during October 2017. These cases emerged after Hurricanes Irma and Maria and did not have a definitively identified source. Poor outcomes were observed when septicemia and pulmonary involvement were present.

Estimating the Effects of a Hurricane on Carbon Storage in Mangrove Wetlands in Southwest Florida.

Tropical and subtropical mangrove swamps, under normal conditions, can sequester large amounts of carbon in their soils but as coastal wetlands, they are prone to hurricane disturbances. This study adds to the understanding of carbon storage capabilities of mangrove wetlands and explores how these capacities might change within the scope of a changing storm climate. In September 2017, Naples Bay, FL, USA (28°5' N, 81°47' W) encountered a direct hit from hurricane Irma, a Saffir-Simpson category 3 storm. By comparing carbon storage, forest community structure, and aboveground productivity collected in 2013 and in 2019, we estimated the effects of hurricane Irma on mangrove functions. Aboveground biomass increased during the study period at a rate of approximately 0.72 kg m-2 yr-1, significantly less than the average found in undisturbed mangrove forests. Soil carbon storage decreased at all study sites. On average, 2.7 kg-C m-2 was lost in the top 20 cm between sample collections. Carbon loss in belowground pools could point to a feedback of mangrove swamps on climate change as they lose their ability to store carbon and increase net atmospheric carbon. Nevertheless, mangrove swamps remain resilient to tropical storms in the long term and can recover their carbon storage capacity in the years following a storm.

The Medical, Public Health, and Emergency Response to the Impact of 2017 Hurricane Irma in Cuba.

In 2017, Cuba was pummeled by Hurricane Irma, one of the strongest and most devastating Atlantic basin hurricanes in history. Twelve of Cuba's 15 provinces and 90 percent of the population were affected, and there was island-wide loss of electrical power. Despite the significant damage, ongoing economic hardships, and the political realities that required Cuba to handle the situation without response support from other nations, Cuba's recovery was swift and effective. Cuba's disaster self-sufficiency and timely response to Hurricane Irma was grounded on 5 decades of disaster planning coupled with ongoing evolution of disaster risk reduction and management strategies. While the central command center, with local dispatch response teams, and mandated citizen engagement are features unique to Cuba's political structure, in this study, we highlight 5 defining attributes of Cuba's hurricane response that can constructively inform the actions of other island and coastal nations vulnerable to Atlantic tropical cyclones. These attributes are: (1) actively learning and incorporating lessons from past disaster events, (2) integrating healthcare and public health professionals on the frontlines of disaster response, (3) proactively engaging the public in disaster preparedness, (4) incorporating technology into disaster risk reduction, and (5) infusing science into risk planning. In terms of hurricane response, as a geopolitically isolated nation, Cuba has experienced particular urgency when it comes to protecting the population and creating resilient infrastructure that can be rapidly reactivated after the onslaught of storms of ever-increasing intensity. This includes planning for worsening future disaster scenarios based on a clear-eyed appreciation of the realities of climate change.

The Impact of Hurricane Irma on Population Density of the Black Salt-Marsh Mosquito, Aedes taeniorhynchus, in Collier County, Florida.

In 2017, the southeastern USA and Caribbean endured an extremely active year for tropical storm and hurricane activity. On September 10, 2017, Hurricane Irma made a 2nd landfall in Florida, striking Collier County-including Naples and Marco Island, FL. Areas affected by Hurricane Irma are abundant in salt-marsh and mangrove swamps, prime habitats for the black salt-marsh mosquito, Aedes taeniorhynchus. Using both human landing rate and Biogents BG-Counter trap data, here we report the year-to-year fluctuations in population density of Ae. taeniorhynchus. In 2017, Collier County experienced a population explosion of Ae. taeniorhynchus, with daily landing rates reaching as high as 150 adult females/2-min period. The following year a dramatic population crash of Ae. taeniorhynchus was observed, representing some of the lowest Ae. taeniorhynchus numbers ever recorded in Collier County. Analysis of human landing rate and trap data following major hurricane strikes, including Hurricane Irma (2017) and Hurricane Wilma (2005), have revealed severe reductions in Ae. taeniorhynchus populations. Because Ae. taeniorhynchus accounts for a large majority of adulticiding missions in the state of Florida, an enhanced understanding of the factors contributing to Ae. taeniorhynchus population dynamics may allow for improved operational planning and decision-making.

Fecal indicator bacteria levels at beaches in the Florida Keys after Hurricane Irma.

Hurricanes cause infrastructure failures which can lead to contamination of impacted areas. The objective of the current study was to evaluate whether Hurricane Irma contributed towards sewage contamination of coastal beaches. Through this study we evaluated indicators of fecal pollution (fecal indicator bacteria [FIB], enterococci and fecal coliform) and physico-chemical parameters (salinity, pH, turbidity, and temperature) in coastal waters of the Florida Keys shortly after the hurricane. To augment available county sampling data, two sets of sampling efforts were conducted; one focused on collecting samples spatially throughout the Keys to assess whether areas closer to hurricane landfall were more highly impacted. The second was to collect temporally intensive samples at one location during falling tide to evaluate the hypothesis of groundwater contamination. Samples were analyzed for FIB using a new method called timed appearance of culture signal (TACS), which was subsequently calibrated using traditional membrane filter and chromogenic substrate methods. Results showed that coastal beach waters were characterized by elevated but sporadic levels of fecal indicator bacteria up to two months after the hurricane. Spikes were not correlated with physico-chemical characteristics of the water. Our temporally intensive sampling effort did not support the hypothesis that groundwater was a source of elevated FIB. Competing factors could have played a role in the sporadic nature of the FIB levels after the hurricane. We suggest that beach erosion may have flushed out sediments at beaches closer to the hurricane landfall location thereby improving water quality during dry conditions. We also suggest that during wet conditions a source of FIB could include runoff from debris staging areas. Preemptive beach closures immediately after the hurricane were justified due to the sporadic nature of FIB contamination.