Challenges for monitoring artificial turf expansion with satellite remote sensing.

Urban green spaces are central components of urban ecosystems, providing refuge for wildlife while helping 'future proof' cities against climate change. Conversion of urban green spaces to artificial turf has become increasingly popular in various developed countries, such as the UK, leading to reduced urban ecosystem services delivery. To date, there is no established satellite remote sensing method for reliably detecting and mapping artificial turf expansion at scale. We here assess the combined use of very high-resolution multispectral satellite imagery and classical, open source, supervised classification approaches to map artificial lawns in a typical British city. Both object-based and pixel-based classifications struggled to reliably detect artificial turf, with large patches of artificial turf not being any more reliably identified than small patches of artificial turf. As urban ecosystems are increasingly recognised for their key contributions to human wellbeing and health, the poor performance of these standard methods highlights the urgency of developing and applying new, easily accessible approaches for the monitoring of these important ecosystems.

Emerging Health Risks of Crumb Rubber: Inhalation of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals via Saliva During Artificial Turf Activities.

Crumb rubber (CR) is a commonly used infill material in artificial turf worldwide. However, the potential health risk associated with exposure to CR containing environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) remains under investigation. Herein, we observed the widespread presence of CR particles in the range of 2.8-51.4 µg/m3 and EPFRs exceeding 6 × 1015 spins/g in the ambient air surrounding artificial turf fields. Notably, the abundance of these particles tended to increase with the number of operating years of the playing fields. Furthermore, by analyzing saliva samples from 200 participants, we established for the first time that EPFR-carrying CR could be found in saliva specimens, suggesting the potential for inhaling them through the oral cavity and their exposure to the human body. After 40 min of exercise on the turf, we detected a substantial presence of EPFRs, reaching as high as (1.15 ± 1.00) × 1016 spins of EPFR per 10 mL of saliva. Moreover, the presence of EPFRs considerably increased the oxidative potential of CR, leading to the inactivation of Ca2+, redox reactions, and changes in spatial binding of the α-1,4-chain of salivary amylase to Ca2+, all of which could influence human saliva health. Our study provides insights into a new pathway of human exposure to CR with EPFRs in artificial turf infill, indicating an increased human health risk of CR exposure.

Artificial turf infill associated with systematic toxicity in an amniote vertebrate.

Artificial athletic turf containing crumb rubber (CR) from shredded tires is a growing environmental and public health concern. However, the associated health risk is unknown due to the lack of toxicity data for higher vertebrates. We evaluated the toxic effects of CR in a developing amniote vertebrate embryo. CR water leachate was administered to fertilized chicken eggs via different exposure routes, i.e., coating by dropping CR leachate on the eggshell; dipping the eggs into CR leachate; microinjecting CR leachate into the air cell or yolk. After 3 or 7 d of incubation, embryonic morphology, organ development, physiology, and molecular pathways were measured. The results showed that CR leachate injected into the yolk caused mild to severe developmental malformations, reduced growth, and specifically impaired the development of the brain and cardiovascular system, which were associated with gene dysregulation in aryl hydrocarbon receptor, stress-response, and thyroid hormone pathways. The observed systematic effects were probably due to a complex mixture of toxic chemicals leaching from CR, such as metals (e.g., Zn, Cr, Pb) and amines (e.g., benzothiazole). This study points to a need to closely examine the potential regulation of the use of CR on playgrounds and artificial fields.

Microplastics and their Additives in the Indoor Environment.

Analyses of air and house dust have shown that pollution of the indoor environment with microplastics could pose a fundamental hygienic problem. Indoor microplastics can result from abrasion, microplastic beads are frequently added to household products and microplastic granules can be found in artificial turf for sports activities and in synthetic admixtures in equestrian hall litter. In this context, the question arose as to what extent particulate emissions of thermoplastic materials from 3D printing should be at least partially classified as microplastics or nanoplastics. The discussion about textiles as a possible source of indoor microplastics has also been intensified. This Minireview gives an overview of the current exposure of residents to microplastics. Trends can be identified from the results and preventive measures can be derived if necessary. It is recommended that microplastics and their additives be given greater consideration in indoor environmental surveys in the future.

Influence of the composition of artificial turf on rotational traction and athlete biomechanics.

Artificial turf advances have enabled surfaces to behave like natural grass, however, debate remains as to whether artificial turf is as safe as natural grass. To reduce injury risk, sport surfaces should have low rotational traction with artificial surfaces having a potential advantage as components can be manipulated to change surface properties and traction. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence that different components of artificial turf have on rotational traction and athlete lower extremity joint loading. Twelve surfaces underwent mechanical testing to determine the influence of fibre density, fibre length, infill composition and compaction on rotational traction. Following mechanical testing, Control, Low and High Traction surfaces were selected for biomechanical analysis, where sixteen athletes performed maximum effort v-cuts while kinematic/kinetic data were recorded on each surface. Mechanically, fibre density, type of infill and compaction of the surface each independently influenced traction. The traction differences were substantial enough to alter the athlete kinematics and kinetics. Low traction surfaces reduced ankle and knee loading, while high traction surfaces increased ankle and knee loading . Reducing the rotational traction of sport surfaces is possible through alterations of individual components, which may reduce the joint loading at the knee and ankle joint.

Playing surface and UK professional rugby union injury risk.

Artificial rugby union playing surface installation is increasing. This prospective cohort study aimed to examine the effect of playing surface on match injury types within 157 players of two UK professional rugby union clubs playing 209 matches (96 on artificial surfaces and 113 on grass) over three seasons. There was no difference in overall injury risk between the two playing surfaces with injury incidence on artificial 80.2 (CI 69.9-91.7) and on grass 81.9 per 1000 match-hours (CI 72.2-92.5), with an incidence rate ratio (RR) of 0.98 (CI 0.82-1.17). There was a higher rate of concussion (RR 0.52, CI 0.34 - 0.78) and chest injuries on grass (RR 0.26 CI 0.07, 0.95), and a higher rate of thigh haematoma (RR 2.25, CI 1.05-4.82) foot injuries (RR 4.12, CI 1.10, 15.40) and injury to players being tackled (RR 1.46, CI 1.00, 2.15) on artificial. Whilst there was no higher injury risk for matches played on artificial versus natural grass surfaces, the higher incidence of concussion and chest injury on grass, and the higher rate of foot injuries on artificial surfaces may be related to tackle and footwear-to-surface interface factors.

Physiological responses, fatigue and perception of female soccer players in small-sided games with different pitch size and sport surfaces.

The aim of this research was to evaluate the influence of game surface and pitch size on the physiological responses, jump performance and perceptions of sub-elite female soccer players playing four-a-side games. Sixteen sub-elite female soccer players were divided into four groups of four players each. Three small-sided games (SSGs; pitch size: 400 m2, 600 m2 and 800 m2) were played on three surfaces (dirt [DT], artificial turf [AT] and natural grass [NG]). Players' heart rate (HR) was monitored during each game. Before and after each SSG, participants performed two counter-movement jumps (CMJs) and answered a questionnaire based on visual analogue scales (VASs) to indicate their perception of the effort required on each surface. DT obtained lower outputs for most variables. In the SSG 600 mean HR was higher on NG than AT (+3.31 %HRmax; p = 0.029), but players' overall satisfaction with both surfaces was similar (p>0.05). The SSG 400 received the lowest ratings for most variables, whereas the SSG 600 resulted in higher mean HR than SSG 800 [NG (+9.14 b.p.m.; p = 0.001); AT (+7.32 b.p.m.; p = 0.014)]. No surface differences in CMJ performance were found. In conclusion, a higher internal load can be achieved on NG, whereas DT is not recommended for playing soccer. Moreover, the internal load on players in SSGs can be controlled by manipulating pitch size, but over-large pitches may entail a reduction in the physiological profile of female soccer players.

Safety of third-generation artificial turf in male elite professional soccer players in Italian major league.

Our hypothesis is that there are no difference in the injury incidence on artificial turf and natural grass. During the 2011/2012 season, we recorded injuries which occurred to two Italian stadiums equipped with third-generation artificial turf during 36 games (391 players). Data were compared with the injuries which occurred in the same season in two stadiums equipped with natural grass (372 players). We recorded 43 injuries during the playing time (16.7 per 1000 h). About 23 (18.1 per 1000 h) injuries occurred on artificial turf, while 20 (15.2 per 1000 h) on the natural grass with no statistical differences P > 0.05. We recorded 10 (7.87 per 1000 h) contact and 13 (10.23 per 1000 h) non-contact injuries on artificial turf, while 5 (3.8 per 1000 h) contact and 15 (11.4 per 1000 h) non-contact injuries on natural grass P > 0.05. The overall relative risk was 1.15; 95% CI: 0.64-2.07). Our study demonstrates a substantial equivalence in injury risk on natural grass and artificial turf in elite professional soccer athletes during official matches.

Does the FIFA 11+ Injury Prevention Program Reduce the Incidence of ACL Injury in Male Soccer Players?

BACKGROUND: The FIFA 11+ injury prevention program has been shown to decrease the risk of soccer injuries in men and women. The program has also been shown to decrease time loss resulting from injury. However, previous studies have not specifically investigated how the program might impact the rate of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in male soccer players. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: The purpose of this study was to examine if the FIFA 11+ injury prevention program can (1) reduce the overall number of ACL injuries in men who play competitive college soccer and whether any potential reduction in rate of ACL injuries differed based on (2) game versus practice setting; (3) player position; (4) level of play (Division I or II); or (5) field type. METHODS: This study was a prospective cluster randomized controlled trial, which was conducted in 61 Division I and Division II National Collegiate Athletic Association men's soccer teams over the course of one competitive soccer season. The FIFA 11+ is a 15- to 20-minute on-the-field dynamic warm-up program used before training and games and was utilized as the intervention throughout the entire competitive season. Sixty-five teams were randomized: 34 to the control group (850 players) and 31 to the intervention group (675 players). Four intervention teams did not complete the study and did not submit their data, noting insufficient time to complete the program, reducing the number for per-protocol analysis to 61. Compliance to the FIFA 11+ program, athletic exposures, specific injuries, ACL injuries, and time loss resulting from injury were collected and recorded using a secure Internet-based system. At the end of the season, the data in the injury surveillance system were crosshatched with each individual institution's internal database. At that time, the certified athletic trainer signed off on the injury collection data to confirm their accuracy and completeness. RESULTS: A lower proportion of athletes in the intervention group experienced knee injuries (25% [34 of 136]) compared with the control group (75% [102 of 136]; relative risk [RR], 0.42; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.29-0.61; p < 0.001). When the data were stratified for ACL injury, fewer ACL injuries were reported in the intervention group (16% [three of 19]) compared with the control group (84% [16 of 19]), accounting for a 4.25-fold reduction in the likelihood of incurring ACL injury (RR, 0.236; 95% CI, 0.193-0.93; number needed to treat = 70; p < 0.001). With the numbers available, there was no difference between the ACL injury rate within the FIFA 11+ group and the control group with respect to game and practice sessions (games-intervention: 1.055% [three of 15] versus control: 1.80% [12 of 15]; RR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.09-1.11; p = 0.073 and practices-intervention: 0% [zero of four] versus control: 0.60% [four of four]; RR, 0.14; 95% CI, 0.01-2.59; p = 0.186). With the data that were available, there were no differences in incidence rate (IR) or injury by player position for forwards (IR control = 0.339 versus IR intervention = 0), midfielders (IR control = 0.54 versus IR intervention = 0.227), defenders (IR control = 0.339 versus IR intervention = 0.085), and goalkeepers (IR control = 0.0 versus IR intervention = 0.0) (p = 0.327). There were no differences in the number of ACL injuries for the Division I intervention group (0.70% [two of nine]) compared with the control group (1.05% [seven of nine]; RR, 0.30; CI, 0.06-1.45; p = 0.136). However, there were fewer ACL injuries incurred in the Division II intervention group (0.35% [one of 10]) compared with the control group (1.35% [nine of 10]; RR, 0.12; CI, 0.02-0.93; p = 0.042). There was no difference between the number of ACL injuries in the control group versus in the intervention group that occurred on grass versus turf (Wald chi square [1] = 0.473, b = 0.147, SE = 0.21, p = 0.492). However, there were more ACL injuries that occurred on artificial turf identified in the control group (1.35% [nine of 10]) versus the intervention group (0.35% [one of 10]; RR, 0.14; 95% CI, 0.02-1.10; p = 0.049). CONCLUSIONS: This program, if implemented correctly, has the potential to decrease the rate of ACL injury in competitive soccer players. In addition, this may also enhance the development and dissemination of injury prevention protocols and may mitigate risk to athletes who utilize the program consistently. Further studies are necessary to analyze the cost-effectiveness of the program implementation and to analyze the efficacy of the FIFA 11+ in the female collegiate soccer cohort. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level I, therapeutic study.

Skin friction related behaviour of artificial turf systems.

The occurrence of skin friction related injuries is an issue for artificial turf sports pitches and remains a barrier to their acceptance. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the current industry standard Securisport® Sports Surface Tester that measures skin surface related frictional behaviour of artificial turf. Little research has been published about the device and its efficacy, despite its widespread use as a standard FIFA test instrument. To achieve a range of frictional behaviours, several "third generation" (3G) carpet and infill combinations were investigated; friction time profiles throughout the Securisport rotations were assessed in combination with independent measurements of skin roughness before and after friction testing via 3D surface scanning. The results indicated that carpets without infill had greatest friction (coefficients of friction 0.97-1.20) while those completely filled with sand or rubber had similar and lower values independent of carpet type (coefficient of friction (COF) ≈0.57). Surface roughness of a silicone skin (s-skin) decreased after friction testing, with the largest change on sand infilled surfaces, indicating an "abrasive" polishing effect. The combined data show that the s-skin is damaged in a surface-specific manner, thus the Securisport COF values appear to be a poor measure of the potential for skin abrasion. It is proposed that the change in s-skin roughness improves assessment of the potential for skin damage when players slide on artificial turf.

The influence of an artificial playing surface on injury risk and perceptions of muscle soreness in elite Rugby Union.

This prospective cohort study investigated the influence of an artificial playing surface on injury risk and perceptions of muscle soreness in elite English Premiership Rugby Union players. Time loss (from 39.5 matches) and abrasion (from 27 matches) injury risk was compared between matches played on artificial turf and natural grass. Muscle soreness was reported over the 4 days following one match played on each surface by 95 visiting players (i.e., normally play on natural grass surfaces). There was a likely trivial difference in the overall injury burden relating to time-loss injuries between playing surfaces [rate ratio = 1.01, 90% confidence interval (CI): 0.73-1.38]. Abrasions were substantially more common on artificial turf (rate ratio = 7.92, 90% CI: 4.39-14.28), although the majority of these were minor and only two resulted in any reported time loss. Muscle soreness was consistently higher over the 4 days following a match on artificial turf in comparison with natural grass, although the magnitude of this effect was small (effect sizes ranging from 0.26 to 0.40). These results suggest that overall injury risk is similar for the two playing surfaces, but further surveillance is required before inferences regarding specific injury diagnoses and smaller differences in overall injury risk can be made.

Effect of soccer footwear on landing mechanics.

Lower-extremity injury is common in soccer. A number of studies have begun to assess why specific lower-extremity injuries occur. However, currently few studies have examined how footwear affects lower-extremity mechanics. In order to address this question, 14 male (age: 22.1 ± 3.9 years, height: 1.77 ± 0.06 m, and mass: 73.3 ± 11.5 kg) and 14 female (age: 22.8 ± 3.1 years, height: 1.68 ± 0.07 m and mass: 64.4 ± 9.2 kg) competitive soccer players underwent a motion analysis assessment while performing a jump heading task. Each subject performed the task in three different footwear conditions (running shoe, bladed cleat, and turf shoe). Two-way analyses of variance were used to examine statistical differences in landing mechanics between the footwear conditions while controlling for gender differences. These comparisons were made during two different parts (prior to and following) of a soccer-specific jump heading task. A statistically significant interaction for the peak dorsiflexion angle (P = 0.02) and peak knee flexion angle (P = 0.05) was observed. Male soccer players exhibited a degree increase in dorsiflexion in the bladed cleat while female soccer players exhibited a three-degree reduction in peak knee flexion in the bladed cleat condition. Other main effects for gender and footwear were also observed. The results suggest that landing mechanics differ based upon gender, footwear, and the type of landing. Therefore, training interventions aimed at reducing lower-extremity injury should consider utilizing sport-specific footwear when assessing movement patterns.

Bioaccessibility and Risk of Exposure to Metals and SVOCs in Artificial Turf Field Fill Materials and Fibers.

To reduce maintenance costs, municipalities and schools are starting to replace natural grass fields with a new generation synthetic turf. Unlike Astro-Turf, which was first introduced in the 1960s, synthetic field turf provides more cushioning to athletes. Part of this cushioning comes from materials like crumb rubber infill, which is manufactured from recycled tires and may contain a variety of chemicals. The goal of this study was to evaluate potential exposures from playing on artificial turf fields and associated risks to trace metals, semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by examining typical artificial turf fibers (n = 8), different types of infill (n = 8), and samples from actual fields (n = 7). Three artificial biofluids were prepared, which included: lung, sweat, and digestive fluids. Artificial biofluids were hypothesized to yield a more representative estimation of dose than the levels obtained from total extraction methods. PAHs were routinely below the limit of detection across all three biofluids, precluding completion of a meaningful risk assessment. No SVOCs were identified at quantifiable levels in any extracts based on a match of their mass spectrum to compounds that are regulated in soil. The metals were measurable but at concentrations for which human health risk was estimated to be low. The study demonstrated that for the products and fields we tested, exposure to infill and artificial turf was generally considered de minimus, with the possible exception of lead for some fields and materials.

Nature's therapeutic power: a study on the psychophysiological effects of touching ornamental grass in Chinese women.

The health of city residents is at risk due to the high rate of urbanization and the extensive use of electronics. In the context of urbanization, individuals have become increasingly disconnected from nature, resulting in elevated stress levels among adults. The goal of this study was to investigate the physical and psychological benefits of spending time in nature. The benefits of touching real grass and artificial turf (the control activity) outdoors with the palm of the hand for five minutes were measured. Blood pressure and electroencephalography (EEG) as well as State-trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) scores, and the semantic differential scale (SDM) were used to investigate psychophysiological responses. Touching real grass was associated with significant changes in brainwave rhythms and a reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared to touching artificial turf. In addition, SDM scores revealed that touching real grass increased relaxation, comfort, and a sense of naturalness while decreasing anxiety levels. Compared to the control group, the experimental group had higher mean scores in both meditation and attentiveness. Our findings indicate that contact with real grass may reduce physiological and psychological stress in adults.

Examining the Prevalence of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries on Artificial Turf Surfaces Compared to Natural Grass Surfaces in Athletes: A Scoping Review.

The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is commonly injured in sports such as American football and soccer. It is currently unknown if ACL injuries are more prevalent on natural grass or artificial turf fields. The purpose of this scoping review is to analyze research studies evaluating the effect of the playing surface on the prevalence of ACL injuries. We hypothesize that athletes face a greater risk of suffering ACL injuries while playing on artificial turf compared to natural grass. Our team conducted a comprehensive literature review by screening three databases (PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane) that comprised a wide range of peer-reviewed articles on ACL injuries suffered on natural grass and artificial turf surfaces. Inclusion criteria consisted of epidemiological and cohort studies published after 1990 that were written in English and focused on athletes ranging in skill level from youth to professional. Exclusion criteria consisted of biomechanical studies, review articles, and papers that focused on injuries of structures other than the ACL. Bias was assessed with the MINORS criteria. Results were presented by injury rates, calculated ratios, and confidence intervals. The final analysis included nine papers published in peer-reviewed journals. Three of nine papers found that ACL injuries are more likely to occur on artificial turf than on natural grass. Three papers found that there is no difference in the prevalence of ACL injuries between surfaces and one paper stated that ACL injuries are more likely on natural grass than artificial turf. Two papers did not report confidence intervals for ratios comparing injury rates between playing surfaces. There is no consensus in the current literature regarding the prevalence of ACL injuries on artificial turf versus natural grass surfaces. The primary limitation of this study was that the papers used a variety of methods to compare rates of ACL injuries on artificial and natural surfaces, making comparisons between the nine papers difficult.

Lower Extremity Injury Rates on Artificial Turf Versus Natural Grass Surfaces in the National Football League During the 2021 and 2022 Seasons.

Background: It has been argued that the use of artificial turf football fields in the National Football League (NFL) increases player injury risk compared with natural grass surfaces. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to quantify the rate of lower extremity injuries occurring in NFL players on artificial turf compared with natural grass surfaces and characterize the time missed due to injury and proportion of injuries requiring surgery. It was hypothesized that lower extremity injuries requiring surgical intervention would occur at a higher rate on artificial turf than on natural grass. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: Lower extremity injury data for the 2021 and 2022 NFL seasons were obtained using publicly available records. Data collected included injury type, player position, player age, playing surface, weeks missed due to injury, and whether the patient underwent season-ending or minor surgery. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to determine the risk of season-ending surgery according to playing surface. Results: When combining injuries for the 2021 and 2022 seasons (N = 718 injuries), the incidence rate of lower extremity injury was 1.22 injuries/game for natural grass and 1.42 injuries/game for artificial turf. The odds of a season-ending surgery were found to be significantly higher on artificial turf compared with natural grass (odds ratio = 1.60; 95% CI, 1.28-1.99; P < .05), while additional variables, including weather, age, position, week of injury occurrence, and history of prior injury, did not influence the odds of season-ending surgery. Conclusion: The 2021 and 2022 NFL seasons of our analysis demonstrated a higher incidence rate of injuries on artificial turf surfaces compared with natural grass surfaces. In addition, the odds of injury requiring season-ending surgery were found to be significantly higher on artificial turf compared with natural grass.

The Effect of a Synthetic-Grass Sport Surface on Physiology and Perception During Intermittent Exercise in Hot Conditions.

PURPOSE: The current study aimed to determine the effect of a synthetic-grass sport surface on core body temperature, skin temperature, heart rate, thermal sensation, thermal comfort, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during intermittent exercise in hot conditions. METHODS: Using a randomized crossover design, 13 trained/developmental team-sport athletes completed two 50-minute standardized intermittent running protocols on a synthetic and a natural-grass surface, on separate days (control-condition air temperature 32.6 °C [1.3 °C], relative humidity 43.2% [5.3%]). RESULTS: Final skin temperature was significantly higher on synthetic compared with natural grass at the calf (40.1 °C [2.5 °C] vs 33.4 °C [0.6 °C]; P < .001), shoulder (36.6 °C [1.7 °C] vs 33.7 °C [0.7 °C]; P < .001), and chest (33.2 °C [1.1 °C] vs 31.8 °C [1.2 °C]; P = .02). Thermal sensation (median: 2.3; interquartile range [0.5] vs 2.2 [0.5], P = .03) and sweat rate (1.5 [0.4] L·h-1 vs 1.2 [0.3] L·h-1; P = .02) were also significantly higher on synthetic grass. While final core body temperature was significantly higher on the natural than synthetic grass (38.4 °C [0.3 °C] vs 38.2 °C [0.4 °C]), there were no significant differences in delta core temperature, as well as heart rate, thermal comfort, or RPE. CONCLUSIONS: Higher skin temperatures, thermal sensation, and sweat rates suggest that exercising on synthetic grass in hot conditions may increase some markers of heat strain during exercise. However, delta core body temperature, heart rate, thermal comfort, and RPE remained unaffected.

Environmental risks of breakdown nanoplastics from synthetic football fields.

The widespread use of synthetic turf in sports has raised health concerns due to potential risks from nanoplastic inhalation or ingestion. Our research focused on detecting nanoplastics in drainage water from a synthetic football field and evaluating the toxicity of these materials after mechanical fragmentation. We collected and analysed drainage water samples for polymer content and subjected high-density polyethylene (HDPE) straws and ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) granules used on synthetic football fields, to mechanical breakdown to create nanoplastics. The results indicated the presence of trace amounts of EPDM in the water samples. Furthermore, the toxicological assessment revealed that the broken-down nanoplastics and leachate from the surface of EPDM rubber granules exhibited high toxicity to Daphnia magna, while nanoplastics from the inner material exhibited no significant toxicity. The findings highlight the urgent need for future research to identify these specific toxic agents from the surface of EPDM granules.

Tyre granulate on the loose; How much escapes the turf? A systematic literature review.

Tyre granulate used as infill for artificial turf is hailed by some as a good example of reuse, while others see it as a baleful means to dispose of discarded tyres. Because the particles are applied loosely to the surface, they will inevitably disperse into the environment. The possible environmental and health impacts of the particles are a source of societal concern. In response to this, policies to limit particle losses are being developed at the European level. To make informed decisions, data on the quantity of tyre granulate released into the environment are required. So far, however, there are no systematic reviews on or estimates of these losses. The aim of the present study was to identify the various pathways through which infill leaves a football turf and, subsequently, to estimate the quantity of infill leaving the turf by each of these pathways. Data on the pathways including the associated volumes were collected in a systematic literature review following the PRISMA method. The quality of the evidence reported in the retrieved literature was assessed using the GRADE method. The resulting pathways and corresponding quantities were captured in a mass balance. This study estimates that, without mitigation measures, approximately 950 kg/year (min. 570 kg/year, max. 2280 kg/year) of infill leaves the surface of an average artificial football turf via known pathways. Clearing snow can result in an additional loss of 830 kg/year (min. 200 kg/year, max. 2760 kg/year) of infill material. To mitigate the dispersion of infill, one could focus on snow removal, brushing and granulate picked up by players. Mitigation measures for these pathways are well-established and relatively easy to implement and maintain. Although the amount of granulate picked up from the turf by players is relatively small, the measure will promote environmental awareness among the players.