Assessing the Match Physical Responses of International Referees for Footballers with Cerebral Palsy: A Tournaments and Halves Comparative Analysis.

Similar to conventional football, the modality dedicated to footballers with cerebral palsy (CP) requires referees who cope with the physical demands imposed during competitive matches to apply the rules of the game. While a significant body of research has explored the physical demands on referees in mainstream football, there is a noticeable lack of data regarding CP football. This study aimed to examine the physical response of international referees participating in different levels of world competitions for footballers with CP. Thirteen international referees, who officiated 49 matches in the men's 2022 World Cup (1st to 15th ranked teams) and 2022 World Championships (16th to 30th ranked teams), participated in this study. A cross-sectional design was used to determine the physical responses and compare the 1st and 2nd halves and the performance in the different tournaments, recording physical variables throughout the matches. Significant higher physical responses were observed in the World Cup in comparison to the World Championship. Overall, high-level tournaments have been shown to elicit more intense physical responses from referees officiating CP football matches compared to lower-level tournaments. For the World Cup, a significantly higher number of accelerations and decelerations were registered in the 1st half compared to the 2nd half. This information may be useful for the strength and conditioning coaches of referees to plan weekly training sessions more specifically and adjust the periodical training load and post-match recovery protocols.

Evaluating the Validity of Tests to Predict Sprint and Change of Direction Speed in Para-Athletes With Brain Impairments.

Maximum running speed is a performance determinant in para-athletics and cerebral palsy football. Sixty international para-athletes with brain impairments completed five activity-limitation tests (standing broad jump, four bounds for distance, split jumps, 10-m speed skip, and running in place) and two criterion tests (40-m sprint and modified agility test). The same three tests (standing broad jump, four bounds for distance, and 10-m speed skip) that correlated with running performance in nondisabled runners (.67 < r < -.82; p < .05; 75% of variance) also correlated in para-athletes with brain impairments (.41 < r < -.62; p < .01; 55% of variance). Standing broad jump, four bounds for distance, split jumps, and running in place also correlated with change-of-direction speed (.43 < r < -.63; p < .01; 58% of variance). Results indicate that methods of classification for para-athletics with nondisabled runners are also valid with para-athletes with brain impairments, and new sport-specific relationships were found for assessing the performance of rapid and short sprints toward different directions, specific of a team para-sport like cerebral palsy football.

Investigating Patterns of Donor and Recipient Sports of Talent Transfer Paralympians.

Talent transfer has enabled elite athletes to be successful in another sport, with great potential in para-sport. Previous research suggests that similarities between donor and recipient sports may facilitate talent transfer; however, this remains unclear in para-sport. This study investigated patterns between donor and recipient sports' characteristics, identifying the impact on talent transfer in para-sport. An Australian case study utilizing secondary data of 38 Australian Paralympians who competed at the Paralympic Games from 2000 through 2020 was analyzed. Results demonstrated that similarities between sports were not significantly associated with successful talent transfers between Paralympic sports. Understanding patterns associated with successful Paralympic talent transfers offers a foundation of knowledge for designing and developing future talent-transfer pathways and research. Based on this study, it is recommended that sport administrators and practitioners explore greater opportunity for talent transfer in para-sport, rather than limiting talent-transfer opportunities based on athletes' donor sports.

"It Looks Good on Paper, But It Was Never Meant to Be Real": Mixed-Gender Events in the Paralympic Movement.

Although the Paralympic Games have been around for over 60 years, women remain underrepresented in almost all aspects of the Paralympic Movement. It has been suggested that a way to increase women's involvement is through the implementation of mixed-gender events. On paper, this approach makes sense. However, when it comes to the implementation of mixed-gender opportunities for women, it is less clear how effective these events are in increasing participation by women in Para sport. Through document analysis and interviews with athletes and organizers of mixed-gender Paralympic sport, we explore the various strategies that four mixed-gender sports have used to address the issue of gender parity. Using critical feminist theories, we illustrate how larger social, political, and cultural ideas about gender influence women's experiences within these events and discuss the potential of using mixed-gender initiatives to address gender parity within the Paralympic Movement.

Athletes' Perspectives of the Classification System in Para Alpine Skiing for Those With Visual Impairment.

This study explored the classification experiences and views of Para Alpine skiers with visual impairment. Data from 11  interviews were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis to generate three themes: Suitability-The skiers questioned the suitability of the visual measurements, testing environment, and the information they received regarding classification; Exclusivity-Skiers felt certain aspects of the system remain exclusive due to the restrictions of sport classes and lack of the athlete voice; and (Dis)trust-Skiers felt distrust in those implementing the system and in other athletes due to intentional misrepresentation. Speculation surrounding this resulted in the skiers' feeling doubt in their own classification. While there is not a "one size fits all" approach to classification, understanding skiers' experiences can be a vital first step and will help to guide future research into the evolution of this sport's classification.

"It gives me a wake up call"-It is time to implement athlete health monitoring within the Para sport context.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to explore elite Para athletes' and coaches' perceptions of experiences of athlete health monitoring. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study used a qualitative design, applying a phenomenographical approach. Thirteen athletes and six coaches from two different socioeconomic contexts (the Swedish and South African Paralympic programs) participated. Data were collected through individual interviews focusing on athletes' and coaches' perceptions of experiences of athlete health monitoring within Para sport. RESULTS: Three main themes were revealed: (i) the benefits of athlete health monitoring, (ii) the importance of implementation and adaptation of athlete health monitoring in the real-world sports context, and (iii) barriers of athlete health monitoring. The perceptions were that regular monitoring can detect injuries early and thereby prevent them from progressing. Several participants highlighted the importance of monitoring factors beyond injury and illness, such as Para sport-specific health issues. Athletes' experiences were that they started to reflect on their own health, which was interpreted as improvement in health literacy. Another perception was that athlete health monitoring only is conducted within the research context and that athletes are not followed up. The perception was that it is the sports federations' responsibility to monitor and provide support when needed. Lastly, data revealed differences in the possibilities of conducting monitoring, which was related to both socioeconomic factors and Para sport. CONCLUSION: Coaches and athletes see health monitoring as valuable and important in enhancing athlete health. However, to maximize the impact, the monitoring structure should be specific to the context and provide multidisciplinary support when needed.

Performance and micro-pacing strategies in sit para-biathlon.

This study investigated micro-pacing strategies during sit para-biathlon. Six elite sit para-biathletes wore a positioning system device during the world-championships in three different competition formats (Sprint, Middle-distance, and Long-distance). Total Skiing Time (TST), penalty-time, shooting-time, and Total Race Time (TRT) were analysed. One-way analyses of variance were used to compare the relative contributions of TST, penalty-time, and shooting-time to TRT across the three race formats. Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) was used to determine the course positions (clusters) where instantaneous skiing speed was significantly associated with TST. The contribution of TST to TRT was lower for the Long-distance (80 ± 6%) compared to the Sprint (86 ± 5%) and Middle-distance (86 ± 3%) races, however this difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The proportional contribution of penalty-time to TRT was significantly greater (p < 0.05) for the Long-distance (13 ± 6%) compared to the Sprint (5 ± 4%) and Middle-distance (4 ± 3%) races. Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) revealed specific clusters where instantaneous skiing speed was significantly associated with TST. For example, over all laps during the Long-distance race, the fastest athlete gained 6.5 s over the slowest athlete in the section with the steepest uphill. Overall, these findings can provide insights into pacing strategies and help para-biathlon coaches and athletes optimise training programmes to improve performance.

Coach and Athlete Perspectives on Talent Transfer in Paralympic Sport.

Research pertaining to the experiences and motives of Paralympic athletes who transfer between sports is scant. This study aimed to address this gap through semistructured interviews with Canadian Paralympic coaches (n = 35) and athletes (n = 12). Three higher-order themes of "alternative to retirement," "career extension," and "compatibility" were identified. The subthemes of "psychobehavioral" and "physical and physiological" (from the higher-order theme of alternative to retirement) captured reasons leading to transfer, which are similar to reasons athletes may consider retirement. The subthemes of career extension-"better opportunities" and "beneficial outcomes"-shed light on factors that contributed to the withdrawal of negative experiences and reinforcement of positive outcomes associated with transferring sports. Last, compatibility had three subthemes of "resources," "sport-specific," and "communication," which encapsulated factors athletes should consider prior to their transfer. In conclusion, the participants highlighted the importance of transparent and effective communication between athletes and sports to align and establish realistic expectations for everyone involved.

The Emergence of the Pandemic: High-Performance Coach and Athlete Experiences.

The current study explored coach and athlete reactions and challenges leading up to the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, with a specific focus on the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Games' postponement. Nine Australian Paralympic coaches (n = 3) and athletes (n = 6) shared their experiences in semistructured interviews. The thematic analysis highlighted how participants experienced the emergence of the pandemic in different ways, but all were relieved when the late but eventual decision to postpone the Games was made. Regarding lockdown periods (i.e., social-distancing restrictions), some coaches and athletes thrived under the new reality (i.e., training from home, online coaching) while others had more difficulty adjusting. Furthermore, results highlight the many uncertainties still remaining, which continue to influence participants' sport and personal lives. The experiences of coaches and athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic sheds light on strategies and resources that could support Paralympic coaches and athletes during current and future crises.

Physical responses by cerebral palsy footballers in matches played at sea level and moderate altitude.

The main objective of this study was to compare the physical response of para-footballers with cerebral palsy (CP) in official international football matches played at moderate altitude and sea level locations. Eighty-seven international CP footballers participated in this study. We divided participants according to the place of the international competition [sea level group (SLG) and moderate altitude group (MAG)], sport classes (i.e., FT1, FT2, and FT3), and match playing time (i.e., <20 min, 20‒40 min, and >40 min). We recorded the physical response using global position system devices during matches. This study showed that MAG described a lower physical response than SLG on total distance, distance covered at different intensities, and the number of accelerations and decelerations. FT2 and FT3 presented a similar pattern, where we found significant differences for total distance, distance covered at lower and high intensities and moderate accelerations, and decelerations. Considering the playing time during altitude matches, the 20‒40 min and >40 min groups obtained more marked differences in the physical response variables. Para-footballers with CP who competed under altitude conditions showed a lower physical response during football matches, suggesting the implementation of specific preparation and training strategies to face the demanding environmental conditions.

Association between the level of partial foot amputation and gait: a scoping review with implications for the minimum impairment criteria for wheelchair tennis.

OBJECTIVE: This scoping review examines how different levels and types of partial foot amputation affect gait and explores how these findings may affect the minimal impairment criteria for wheelchair tennis. METHODS: Four databases (PubMed, Embase, CINAHL and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched in February 2021 for terms related to partial foot amputation and ambulation. The search was updated in February 2022. All study designs investigating gait-related outcomes in individuals with partial foot amputation were included and independently screened by two reviewers based on Arksey and O'Malley's methodological framework and reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for scoping reviews. RESULTS: Twenty-nine publications with data from 252 participants with partial foot amputation in 25 studies were analysed. Toe amputations were associated with minor gait abnormalities, and great toe amputations caused loss of push-off in a forward and lateral direction. Metatarsophalangeal amputations were associated with loss of stability and decreased gait speed. Ray amputations were associated with decreased gait speed and reduced lower extremity range of motion. Transmetatarsal amputations and more proximal amputations were associated with abnormal gait, substantial loss of power generation across the ankle and impaired mobility. CONCLUSIONS: Partial foot amputation was associated with various gait changes, depending on the type of amputation. Different levels and types of foot amputation are likely to affect tennis performance. We recommend including first ray, transmetatarsal, Chopart and Lisfranc amputations in the minimum impairment criteria, excluding toe amputations (digits two to five), and we are unsure whether to include or exclude great toe, ray (two to five) and metatarsophalangeal amputations. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The protocol of this scoping review was previously registered at the Open Science Framework Registry (https://osf.io/8gh9y) and published.

Analysis of scored goals in the cerebral palsy football World Cup.

This study aimed to report the goal patterns in cerebral palsy (CP) football for a better understanding of the performance of this para-sport. All goals (270) of the 48 2019 IFCPF World Cup matches were analysed through match reports, and 65% of them were analysed by video footage. The results showed 5.6 goals per match. Teams that scored more and conceded fewer goals correlated to a better ranking position in the championship (r= 0.72-0.73; p< 0.01). The distribution of goals scored was not biased by halves (49.3% vs 50.7%; χ2= 0.1; p= 0.88) nor by 15-min periods (26.3% vs 23.0% vs 23.3% vs 27.4%; χ2= 0.5; p= 0.92). In 91.7% of the matches, the team which scored the first goal went on to win the match (χ2= 81.5; p< 0.01). FT3 players scored more goals by player (χ2= 22.1; p< 0.01), while there were no statistical differences in the distribution of goals conceded by goalkeepers according to their sport class (χ2= 4.7; p= 0.09). The goals were scored mainly from organized attacks (74.4%), from the penalty area (52.5%) and through individual action (51.9%). All this information could be crucial for coaches in CP football to plan their game strategies.

Impact of maximal strength training on countermovement jump phase characteristics in athletes with cerebral palsy.

Analysis of the countermovement jump (CMJ) force-time curve phases provides insight into athlete neuromuscular function and methods by which jump height improves in response to training. A CMJ phase analysis and the dynamic strength index (DSI) have yet to be explored in athletes with cerebral palsy (CP). This study aimed to address this knowledge gap. Eleven state- to international-level athletes with CP completed a pre-post maximal strength training intervention with waitlist control. CMJ was assessed via force plate pre/post baseline and after the 12-week intervention. Following the intervention, CMJ height, takeoff velocity, and concentric phase peak and mean force, impulse and mean acceleration improved significantly (p = 0.006-0.001). No changes were observed in any eccentric braking phase variable (p = 0.79-0.13), while DSI lowered (p = 0.03). In athletes with CP, strength training increased CMJ concentric phase peak and mean force and impulse, increasing velocity and acceleration and therefore jump height. DSI lowered due to moderate and small increases in isometric mid-thigh pull and CMJ peak force, respectively. Unlike in non-disabled athletes, strength training did not alter any eccentric phase variable; therefore, other modalities may be required to further optimize jumping performance in athletes with CP.

Is the visual impairment origin a performance factor? Analysis of international-level para swimmers and para athletes.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of congenital and acquired visual impairments on the international performance of Para swimmers and Para track and field athletes. We collected results from visually impaired Para athletes competing in Para swimming or Para athletic events at all IPC-labelled competitions between 2009 and 2019. The dataset contained 20,689 events results. Impairment origin was collected from the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) website. We separated impairment origin into two groups to distinguish those with a congenital impairment from those with an acquired impairment. In visual impairment sport classes (11-12-13), the performance level and the age performance relationship were investigated according to the impairment origin. In classes 11 and 12, peak performance was achieved earlier by male and female swimmers with a congenital impairment compared with those who had an acquired impairment (p < 0.05). No differences were present in class 13 or in any class in Para athletics (p > 0.05). A similar performance level was observed among the two sport disciplines for each class (p > 0.05). This study demonstrated that impairment origin can influence the performance pathway among visually impaired swimmers.

Examining the Influence of Impairment Type on the Development of Paralympic Sport Athletes.

Research has recently examined the role of impairment onset on athlete development in Paralympic sport; however, less is known on how impairment type can impact athlete sporting pathways. In this study, 187 Australian and Canadian Paralympic sport athletes completed a survey. Participants were divided into the following four groups: impaired muscle power (n = 79); ataxia, athetosis, and hypertonia (n = 44); limb deficiencies (n = 42); and other physical impairments (n = 22). Mechanisms of initiation into Paralympic sport varied between groups with some drawn to sport through friends and/or family (i.e., limb deficiencies and other physical impairments groups) while others through talent search programs (i.e., ataxia, athetosis, and hypertonia group) or health care professionals/rehabilitation centers (i.e., impaired muscle power group). Results revealed no significant differences between groups in the chronological age or absolute years for achieving milestones. However, considering the high variability within the sample, more research is necessary to better understand how athletes with different physical impairments navigate through their sporting careers.

Pathways in Paralympic Sport: An In-Depth Analysis of Athletes' Developmental Trajectories and Training Histories.

This three-part investigation conducted a comprehensive analysis of 213 Australian and Canadian athletes' developmental trajectories, training histories, and experiences in organized sports from 18 Paralympic sports (PS). While athletes with early-onset impairments (i.e., congenital, preadolescent) reached milestones and commenced various types of training at a significantly younger age than athletes with later-onset impairments (i.e., early adulthood, adulthood), the latter groups progressed through their careers and incorporated various trainings at a faster pace (i.e., fewer years). Preferences to certain training conditions varied between groups. Eighty-two percent of the athletes with acquired impairments had experience in able-bodied sports before the onset of their impairment, with 70% noting involvement in sports similar to their current PS. The participation rates (38%) and sport similarity (53%) were lower in PS. The amalgamation of findings from this series of studies highlights the complexity associated with PS athletes' development and demonstrates the importance of taking an individualized approach.

Influence of upper-limb muscle strength on the repeated change of direction ability in international-level wheelchair basketball players.

This study aims 1) to compare repeated change of direction ability (rCODA) and bench press (BP) between low (A category, ≤2.5) and high (B category, ≥3.0) sport classes and 2) to analyse the relationships between rCODA and BP performance in a sample of wheelchair basketball (WB) players. Seventeen world-class WB players volunteered participated in this study. All the players undertook two tests: the repeated (x12) Modified Agility T-test (rMAT) to measure the rCODA and the movement velocity in a BP test. No significant differences were observed between categories in the rMAT and BP. For the total sample, BP variables with a mean propulsive velocity of 1 m·s-1 (V1LOAD) largely correlated with all the full rMAT outcomes (r>-0.625; p< 0.05). Having a better BP could be favourable to perform repeated efforts and this seems particularly relevant in fatigue conditions, and especially for the B category players.

Passive drag in Para swimmers with physical impairments: Implications for evidence-based classification in Para swimming.

The inherent hydrodynamic resistance force, or passive drag, of a swimmer directly influences how they move through the water. For swimmers with physical impairments, the strength of association between passive drag and swimming performance is unknown. Knowledge on this factor could improve the World Para Swimming classification process. This study established the relationship between passive drag and 100 m freestyle race performance in Para swimmers with physical impairments. Using a cross-sectional study design, an electrical-mechanical towing device was used to measure passive drag force in 132 international-level Para swimmers. There was a strong, negative correlation between normalized passive drag force and 100 m freestyle race speed in the combined participant cohort (ρ = -0.77, p < 0.001). Type of physical impairment was found to affect the relationship between passive drag and 100 m freestyle race speed when included in linear regression (R2  = 0.65, χ2  = 11.5, p = 0.025). These findings contribute to the body of evidence that passive drag can provide an objective assessment of activity limitation in Para swimmers with physical impairments. The effect of physical impairment type on the relationship between passive drag and swimming performance should be accounted for in Para swimming classification.

Modelling the age-related trajectory of performance in Para swimmers with physical, vision and intellectual impairment.

This study is the first to provide information on the age-related trajectories of performance in Para swimmers with physical, vision and intellectual impairment. Race times from long-course swim meets between 2009 and 2019 were obtained for Para swimmers with an eligible impairment. A subset of 10 661 times from 411 Para swimmers were included in linear mixed effects modelling to establish the relationship between age and performance expressed relative to personal best time and world record time. The main findings were: (a) age has the most noticeable influence on performance between the ages of 12-20 years before performances stabilize and peak in the early to late twenties, (b) women have faster times relative to personal best and world record time than men during early adolescence and their performances stabilize, peak and decline at younger ages, and (c) Para swimmers from different sport classes show varying age-related trajectories in performance after maturation and when training-related factors are more likely to explain competitive swim performance. The results of this study can guide talent identification and development of Para swimmers at various stages of their career and help to inform decision-making on the allocation of sport class and sport class status in Para swimming classification.

Perspectives of a new sport-specific Para Shooting classification system for athletes with vision impairment.

The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and individual sports federations have established the need to develop evidence-based systems of classification for athletes with vision impairment (VI) that may differ depending on the visual demands of each sport. As a consequence, research has been conducted that led to a new classification system for athletes competing in VI shooting. The purpose of this study was to canvas the experiences of key stakeholders (athletes, coaches and classifiers) when the new system of classification was implemented. Twenty-eight participants (17 athletes, 7 coaches and 4 classifiers) completed a questionnaire to rate their experiences of the previous and new classification systems and were interviewed to gain richer insights into their opinions. It was apparent that the changes to the classification system were not adequately communicated to the athletes in particular, and that the classifiers may require a better understanding of the principles of evidence-based classification. The new system was perceived to be significantly more specific for VI shooting and intentional misrepresentation was observed to be significantly less likely than when using the old system. This research provides valuable insights into both the positive and negative experiences of key stakeholders experiencing change in a classification system.