Monitoring training, performance, biomarkers, and psychological state throughout a competitive season: a case study of a triathlete.

INTRODUCTION: Ironman triathletes undergo high workloads during competition preparation which can result in nonfunctional overreaching or overtraining syndrome if not matched with adequate recovery. PURPOSE: The purpose of this case study was to observe changes in physiological and psychological status over the course of a competitive season in a free-living triathlete. METHODS: The subject was a 41-year-old triathlete competing in three 113.1-km events. Over the course of a 40-week period, the participant arrived at the laboratory every 4 weeks and underwent body composition testing via air displacement plethysmography, a blood draw for analysis of various biomarkers, and a treadmill-based lactate threshold test. Workload during training and competitions was monitored via a wearable heart rate-monitoring device. RESULTS: Throughout the season, training volume remained high (12.5 ± 3.4 h/week) and body mass and fat-free mass (FFM) continuously decreased, while biomarkers including cortisol, testosterone, and markers of immunological status exhibited minor changes. Laboratory performance remained relatively consistent, while competition performance continually improved. Following the completion of the competitive period, training volume decreased, FFM remained below baseline levels, free cortisol increased, and both free and total testosterone decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Workload and recovery seem to have been properly managed throughout the season, evidenced by minimal fluctuations in endocrine and immunological markers. The reason for changes observed in testosterone, cortisol, and body composition following the last competition is unclear, though it may be attributed to changes in stressors and recovery practices outside of training. It is recommended that athletes follow a structured plan during the transition period into the offseason to ensure recovery of physiological state and to set up a productive offseason.

Which training load indicators are greater correlated with maturation and wellness variables in elite U14 soccer players?

BACKGROUND: Monitoring of training load is done to improve physical performance and minimize the incidence of injuries. The study examined the correlation between accumulated training load parameters based on periods with maturity (i.e., maturity offset and peak height velocity -PHV- and wellness variables -e.g., stress and sleep quality-). The second aim was to analyze the multi-linear regression between the above indicators. METHODS: Twenty elite young U14 soccer players (M = 13.26 ± 0.52 years, 95% CI [13.02, 13.51]) were evaluated over 26 weeks (early, mid, and end-season) to obtain stress, sleep quality, and measures of workload in the season (accumulated acute workload [AW], accumulated chronic workload [CW], accumulated acute: chronic workload ratio [ACWLR], accumulated training monotony [TM], accumulated training strain [TS]). RESULTS: The analysis revealed a moderate, statistically significant negative correlation between sleep quality and training monotony (r = -0.461, p < 0.05). No significant correlations were observed between other variables (p > 0.05). In the multi-linear regression analysis, maturity, PHV, sleep, and stress collectively accounted for variances of 17% in AW, 17.1% in CW, 11% in ACWLR, 21.3% in TM, and 22.6% in TS. However, individual regression coefficients for these predictors were not statistically significant (p > 0.05), indicating limited predictive power. CONCLUSION: The study highlights the impact of sleep quality on training monotony, underscoring the importance of managing training load to mitigate the risks of overtraining. The non-significant regression coefficients suggest the complexity of predicting training outcomes based on the assessed variables. These insights emphasize the need for a holistic approach in training load management and athlete wellness monitoring.

Association between match-related physical activity profiles and playing positions in different tasks: A data driven approach.

Assessing the intensity characteristics of specific soccer drills (matches, small-side game, and match-based exercises) could help practitioners to plan training sessions by providing the optimal stimulus for every player. In this paper, we propose a data analytics framework to assess the neuromuscular or metabolic characteristics of a soccer-specific exercise in relation with the expected match intensity. GPS data describing the physical tasks' external intensity during an entire season of twenty-eight semi-professional soccer players competing at the fourth Italian division were used in this study. A supervised machine-learning approach was tested in order to detect difference in playing positions in different sport-specific drills. Moreover, a non-supervised machine-learning model was used to profile the match neuromuscular and metabolic characteristics. Players' playing positions during matches and match-based exercises are characterised by specific metabolic and neuromuscular characteristics related to tactical demands, while in the small-side game these differences are not detected. Additionally, our framework permits to evaluate if the match performance request is mirrored during training drills. Practitioners could evaluate the type of stimulus performed by a player in a specific training drill in order to assess if they reflect the matches characteristics of their specific playing position.

Recovery in elite youth basketball players: The responsiveness of the psychophysiological measurements and the role of testosterone concentration.

This study investigated the recovery responses to the Total Quality Recovery (TQR), Well-Being questionnaire (WBQ), and Heart Rate (HR) responses to Submaximal Running Test (SRT), and the influence of salivary testosterone concentration (TEST) on these responses in 25 elite youth (U15) male basketball players. TQR, WBQ, and HR measurements were assessed after 48 hours of rest (T1), 24 hours after the 1st day of training (T2) and 24 hours after the 2nd day of training (T3). Salivary sampling was conducted at T1 and T3. A significant decrease was observed for TQR (F = 4.06; p = 0.01) and for WBQ (F = 5.37; p = 0.008) from T1 to T3. No difference among the three-time points was observed for HR and HR Recovery, and the TEST concentration did not influence the results. These results show that TQR and WBQ are sensitive to acute transient alterations in training loads (TL) and may be utilized to monitor recovery in elite youth basketball players. The HR related measurements presented limited responsiveness, and the TEST seems not to influence the recovery of these players who are competing at highest performance level.

Weekly Fluctuations in, and Associations Between, Salivary Hormone Responses, Load, and Well-Being During the Pre-season in Professional Male Basketball Players.

ABSTRACT: Kamarauskas, P, Scanlan, A, Ferioli, D, and Conte, D. Weekly fluctuations in, and associations between, salivary hormone responses, load, and well-being during the pre-season in professional male basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): 128-135, 2024-This study aimed to (a) quantify weekly fluctuations in hormonal responses (testosterone [T], cortisol [C], and their ratio [T:C]), external (PlayerLoad [PL] and PL·minute-1) and internal (session rating of perceived exertion load [sRPE-load], summated heart rate zones [SHRZs], and percentage of maximal heart rate [%HRmax]) load measures, and well-being measured using a self-reported questionnaire and (b) determine the associations between weekly changes in hormonal responses and load measures with weekly changes in well-being during the pre-season phase in basketball players. Twenty-one professional male basketball players (age: 26.2 ± 4.9 years) were monitored during a 5-week pre-season phase. Linear mixed models were used to determine weekly differences in each variable and associations between weekly changes in hormonal and load variables with weekly changes in well-being. Findings revealed that T (p < 0.001) and T:C (p = 0.002) increased toward the end of the pre-season phase. Moreover, higher (p < 0.05) external (PL·minute-1) and internal (%HRmax) load intensities were evident during the first 3 weeks of the pre-season, with no significant fluctuations in other load variables. Weekly changes in PL and sRPE-load were negatively associated (p < 0.05) with weekly changes in well-being, albeit weak in magnitudes (R2 = 0.061-0.105). These results highlight that a periodized approach was undertaken across the pre-season predominantly predicated on altering weekly load intensities, which coincided with positive hormonal responses toward the end of the pre-season. In addition, weak relationships were evident between weekly changes in hormonal responses and load measures with well-being, emphasizing that a low commonality may be present between these constructs.

Mind the Gap: Comparison of External Load and Load Variation Between a Reserve Team in a 1-Game Week Microcycle and Its First Team in a 2-Game Week Microcycle Within an Elite Professional Soccer Club.

ABSTRACT: Carpels, T, Scobie, N, Macfarlane, NG, and Kemi, OJ. Mind the gap: comparison of external load and load variation between a reserve team in a 1-game week microcycle and its first team in a 2-game week microcycle within an elite professional soccer club. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): e235-e242, 2024-The aim of this study was to quantify and compare weekly external load and within-week load variation of reserve team players (RES) in a 1-game week microcycle to first team players (FT) in a 2-game week microcycle within the same professional soccer club. External load data were collected between 2017 and 2020 for the following parameters: duration, total distance (TD), total high-speed distance (THSD; >19.8 km·h -1 ), high-speed distance (HSD; 19.8-25.2 km·h -1 ), sprint distance (SD; >25.2 km·h -1 ), number of sprints (number of efforts >25.2 km·h -1 ), number of high-speed efforts (number of HS efforts >19.8 km·h -1 ), meters per minute (m·min -1 ), and high-speed meters per minute (HS m·min -1 ). First team players were subcategorized into starters (ST) and nonstarters (NST). Intergroup differences in cumulative weekly load and weekly load patterns were statistically analyzed, whereas training monotony (TM) was quantified to assess intragroup, within-week, load variation. Reserve team players showed similar weekly loads to ST, apart from significant differences ( p < 0.005) in duration (8%), TD (21%), and HS efforts (16%). Similar to ST, RES showed greater values than NST ( p < 0.0005) for duration (10%), TD (9%), THSD (30%), HSD (26%), SD (45%), sprints (40%), and HS efforts (22%). Weekly patterns in RES were different from ST and NST ( p < 0.05). Training monotony was highest for NST for all parameters, apart from the number of sprints. Reserve team players need to be prepared to cope with cumulative weekly loads and the lack of recovery between games that ST face. However, when RES become NST, effective loading strategies need to be designed within the limits of 2-game week microcycles to ensure continuous development.

A Retrospective Analysis of Southeastern U.S. Police Recruit Health and Fitness From 4 Points in Time Within a 16-Year Period: Implications for Physical Fitness Training.

ABSTRACT: Gonzales, SM, Orr, RM, Coburn, JW, Hoffmann, MD, Kennedy, K, Dawes, JJ, and Lockie, RG. A retrospective analysis of southeastern U.S. police recruit health and fitness from 4 points in time within a 16-year period: Implications for physical fitness training. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): 1118-1126, 2024-Drawing from the general population for its recruiting needs, police departments often employ academy curricula to improve a recruit's fitness so they can perform occupational tasks. Recently, obesity and physical inactivity have increased in the general population, potentially influencing the health and fitness of incoming recruits. This study involved a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of health and fitness data of police recruits. Data from 1 police department in southeastern United States were analyzed at 4 specific time points, splitting the recruits into natural immerging groups; 2003 (n = 93), 2006 (n = 137), 2009 (n = 74), and 2019 (n = 242). Health and fitness data for all recruits included age, height, body mass, and body mass index (BMI); systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP); sit-and-reach; combined grip strength; push-ups and sit-ups completed in 60 seconds; physical ability test time; and 2.4-km run time. Several univariate analyses, with sex and age as covariates (analyses of covariance), and a Bonferroni's post hoc, determined whether there were significant between-group differences. Effect sizes (d) were also calculated. Key results demonstrated that 2019 recruits were heavier than the recruits in 2006 and 2009 (p ≤ 0.032; d = 0.14-0.38); had a greater BMI (p ≤ 0.028; d = 0.24-0.75) and systolic BP (p < 0.001; d = 0.47-0.65), and lesser sit-and-reach distance (p ≤ 0.020; d = 0.26-0.46), than all recruit groups; completed fewer sit-up repetitions than the recruits in 2006 and 2009 (p ≤ 0.025; d = 0.42-0.48); and were slower in the 2.4-km run than the recruits in 2006 (p = 0.009; d = 0.36). Police training staff may need to address lesser health (BMI, BP) and fitness (hamstring flexibility, abdominal endurance, aerobic fitness) in incoming recruits.

Effects of Repeated High-Intensity Effort Training or Repeated Sprint Training on Repeated High-Intensity Effort Ability and In-Game Performance in Professional Rugby Union Players.

ABSTRACT: Glaise, P, Rogowski, I, and Martin, C. Effects of repeated high-intensity effort training or repeated sprint training on repeated high-intensity effort ability and in-game performance in professional rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): 932-940, 2024-This study investigated the effects of repeated high-intensity efforts (RHIE) training compared with repeated sprint exercise (RSE) training on RHIE ability (RHIEa) and in-game performance in professional rugby union players. Thirty-nine, male, professional, rugby union players were randomly assigned to 3 training groups (RHIE training, RSE training, and control). Repeated high-intensity effort ability and high-intensity effort characteristics (including sprints, acceleration, and contact efforts) during official games were measured before and after a 10-week specific (RHIE, RSE, or control) training period. The results of this study showed that concerning RHIEa, both the RHIE and RSE training significantly increased the players' average sprint velocity ( p < 0.001, d = -0.39 and p < 0.001, d = -0.53 respectively), average sled push velocity (ASPV; p < 0.001, d = -0.81 and p = 0.017, d = -0.48 respectively), and RHIE score ( p < 0.001, d = -0.72 and p < 0.001, d = -0.60 respectively). Repeated high-intensity effort training trended in a smaller increase in average sprint velocity than RSE training, a larger increase in ASPV, and a similar increase in RHIE score. Concerning in-game high-intensity efforts, both the RHIE and RSE training produced significant improvements in the number of sprints ( p = 0.047, d = -0.28 and p < 0.001, d = -0.47 respectively), total distance ( p < 0.001, d = -0.50 and p = 0.002, d = -0.38 respectively), the number of accelerations ( p < 0.001, d = -0.37 and p = 0.003, d = -0.32 respectively), and contact rate ( p < 0.001, d = -0.97 and p = 0.020, d = -0.28 respectively). Conversely, the magnitude of the increase in contact rate was almost twice as high in RHIE compared with RSE training. To conclude, the findings of this study were that both RSE and RHIE training are effective methods for developing RHIEa and in-game high-intensity efforts in professional rugby union. In practical applications, as the gains in certain abilities and game performance data differed depending on the training method chosen, we suggest that coaches choose the most appropriate method according to the profile of the players, their position, and the style of play they want to develop.

A Higher Kick Frequency Swimming Training Program Optimizes Swim-to-Cycle Transition in Triathlon.

ABSTRACT: Ambrosini, L, Presta, V, Vitale, M, Menegatti, E, Guarnieri, A, Bianchi, V, De Munari, I, Condello, G, and Gobbi, G. A higher kick frequency swimming training program optimizes swim-to-cycle transition in triathlon. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): 976-984, 2024-The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of an 8-week swimming training program on biomechanical and physiological responses during a swim-to-cycle simulation. Fifteen triathletes were randomly allocated to 3 groups: a 6-beat-kick group (K6), a 4-beat-kick group (K4), and a control group (CG). Biomechanical and physiological parameters were evaluated during a 400-m swim and a 10-minute cycle segment before (Pretraining) and after (Posttraining) the program. A lower stroke frequency ( p = 0.004) and a higher stroke length ( p = 0.002) was found in K6 compared with CG at Posttraining. A reduction in the K6 emerged between Pretraining and Posttraining during cycling for heart rate ( p = 0.005), V̇O 2 ( p = 0.014), and energy expenditure ( p = 0.008). A positive association emerged between swim kick index and cycling cadence in the K6 group. The improvement in stroke frequency and length observed in the K6 group could be explained as an improvement in swimming technique. Similarly, the reduction in energy expenditure during cycling at Posttraining for the K6 group suggests an improvement in the working economy. Triathlon coaches and athletes should consider the inclusion of high swim kick into their training programs to enhance swim and cycling performance, which can ultimately lead to an improvement in the swim-to-cycle transition and the overall triathlon performance.

Post-Activation Performance Enhancement of Punch Force and Neuromuscular Performance in Amateur Boxing: Toward a More Individualized and "Real-World" Approach.

ABSTRACT: Finlay, MJ, Greig, M, Bridge, CA, and Page, RM. Post-activation performance enhancement of punch force and neuromuscular performance in amateur boxing: Toward a more individualized and "real-world" approach. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): 1063-1071, 2024-Previous research on post-activation performance enhancement has been applied in several sporting settings, although this is lacking in a boxing setting. This study explored the effectiveness of 2 upper-body conditioning activities in improving punch-specific performance during an amateur boxing-simulated bout. On 3 separate occasions, 10 male senior elite amateur boxers performed the following conditioning activities before a boxing-specific simulation protocol: isometric (ISO) punch, elastic resistance (ER) punch, and a control trial. Boxers performed maximal punches against a vertically mounted force plate, and countermovement jumps (CMJ) at baseline, before round 1, after each round, and 4 minutes after the simulation. Both conditioning activities, but not the control trial, produced small worthwhile increases (effect size ≥ 0.20; equal to or greater than the smallest worthwhile change) in punch force, although worthwhile increases in rate of force development were limited to the cross during the ISO trial. No group-based improvements in CMJ performance were observed. Individual analysis revealed that 6 boxers improved punch-specific performance to the greatest extent in the ISO trial; in contrast, only 1 boxer did so in the ER trial. Three boxers exhibited similar performance increases across trials. In conclusion, both conditioning activities may be applied to an amateur boxer's warm-up to acutely enhance punch-specific performance. The ISO conditioning activity seems most effective; however, the interindividual variability suggests a need for protocols to be individualized to each athlete. The conditioning activities in the present study may be applied to sparring, competitive bouts, or to other combat sports.

Five-Week, Low-Intensity Blood Flow Restriction Rowing Improves V̇ o2 max in Elite Rowers.

ABSTRACT: Held, S, Rappelt, L, Rein, R, Deutsch, J-P, Wiedenmann, T, and Donath, L. Five-week, low-intensity, blood flow restriction rowing improves V̇ o2 max in elite rowers. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): e299-e303, 2024-This controlled intervention study examined the effects of low-intensity rowing with blood flow restriction (BFR) on maximal oxygen uptake (V̇ o2 max), peak power output during ramp testing (PPO), and 2000-m time trial performance (P2k). Eleven, highly elite, male rowers (22.1 ± 1.6 years; 92.6 ± 3.8 kg; 1.93 ± 0.04 m; 7.9. ± 2.2 years rowing experience; 20.4 ± 2.0 h·w -1 training volume; 11.9 ± 1.1 session per week) trained 5 weeks without BFR (Base) followed by a 5-week BFR intervention period. BFR of the lower limb was applied through customized elastic wraps. BFR took place 3 times a week (accumulated net pBFR: 60 min·wk -1 ; occlusion per session: 2 times 10 min·session -1 ) and was used exclusively at low intensities (<2 mmol·L -1 ). V̇ o2 max, PPO, and P2k were examined before, between, and after both intervention periods. Bayesian's credible intervals revealed relevantly increased V̇ o2 max +0.30 L·min -1 (95% credible interval: +0.00 to +0.61 L·min -1 ) adaptations through BFR. By contrast, PPO +14 W (-6 to +34 W) and P2k -5 W (-14 to +3 W) were not noticeably affected by the BFR intervention. This study revealed that 15 sessions of BFR application with a cumulative total BFR load of 5 h over a 5-week macrocycle increased V̇ o2 max remarkably. Thus, pBFR might serve as a promising tool to improve aerobic capacity in highly trained elite rowers.

A Biopsychosocial Model for Understanding Training Load, Fatigue, and Musculoskeletal Sport Injury in University Athletes: A Scoping Review.

ABSTRACT: McClean, ZJ, Pasanen, K, Lun, V, Charest, J, Herzog, W, Werthner, P, Black, A, Vleuten, RV, Lacoste, E, and Jordan, MJ. A biopsychosocial model for understanding training load, fatigue, and musculoskeletal sport injury in university athletes: A scoping review. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): 1177-1188, 2024-The impact of musculoskeletal (MSK) injury on athlete health and performance has been studied extensively in youth sport and elite sport. Current research examining the relationship between training load, injury, and fatigue in university athletes is sparse. Furthermore, a range of contextual factors that influence the training load-fatigue-injury relationship exist, necessitating an integrative biopsychosocial model to address primary and secondary injury prevention research. The objectives of this review were (a) to review the scientific literature examining the relationship between training load, fatigue, and MSK injury in university athletes and (b) to use this review in conjunction with a transdisciplinary research team to identify biopsychosocial factors that influence MSK injury and develop an updated, holistic biopsychosocial model to inform injury prevention research and practice in university sport. Ten articles were identified for inclusion in this review. Key findings were an absence of injury surveillance methodology and contextual factors that can influence the training load-fatigue-MSK injury relationship. We highlight the inclusion of academic load, social load, and mental health load as key variables contributing to a multifactorial, gendered environmental, scientific inquiry on sport injury and reinjury in university sport. An integrative biopsychosocial model for MSK injury in university sport is presented that can be used to study the biological, psychological, and social factors that modulate injury and reinjury risk in university athletes. Finally, we provide an example of how causal inference can be used to maximize the utility of longitudinally collected observational data that is characteristic of sport performance research in university sport.

Effects of 6-Week Motor-Cognitive Agility Training on Football Test Performance in Adult Amateur Players - A Three-Armed Randomized Controlled Trial.

Agility, defined as the ability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events, constitutes a central performance component in football. Existing agility training approaches often focus on change of direction that does not reflect the complex motor-cognitive demands on the pitch. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of a novel motor-cognitive dual-task agility training (Multiple-object tracking integrated into agility training) on agility and football-specific test performance parameters, compared to agility and a change of direction (COD) training. Adult male amateur football players (n = 42; age: 27±6; height: 181±7cm; weight: 80±12kg) were randomly allocated to one of the three intervention groups (COD, agility, agility + multiple object tracking). The Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), a dribbling test with/without cognitive task as well as the Random Star Run (with/without ball) and the modified T-Test were assessed before and after a 6-week training period. Time effects within the T-Test (F = 83.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and dribbling test without cognitive task (F = 23.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.38) with improvements of all intervention groups (p < 0.05) were found. Dribbling with cognitive task revealed a time effect (F = 7.8; p = 0.008; η2 = 0.17), with improvements exclusively in the agility and dual-task agility groups (p < 0.05). Random Star Run with and without ball exhibited a time (F = 38.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.5; F = 82.7; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and interaction effect (F = 14.14; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.42; F = 27.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.59), with improvements for the agility and dual-task agility groups. LSPT showed no time, group or interaction effect. The effects of change of direction training are limited to change of direction and dribbling test performance within preplanned scenarios. In contrast, motor-cognitive agility interventions result in notable enhancements in football-specific and agility tests, incorporating decision-making and multitasking components. No differences were observed between agility and agility + multiple object tracking. To achieve a transfer to game-relevant performance, coaches should focus on integrating cognitive challenges into motor training.

Can The Pitch Dimension Influence the Physical Fitness Adaptations Induced by Small-Sided Training Programs Added to Regular In-Field Training? A Randomized Controlled Study in Youth Soccer Players.

Small-sided games (SSGs) are frequently utilized in training settings to elicit specific stimuli that can promote physical fitness adaptations over time. However, various task constraints, such as pitch dimensions, can significantly influence both the acute external and internal load responses. Thus, understanding the impact of different pitch dimensions on physical fitness adaptations is crucial. This study sought to compare the physical adaptations induced by an SSG-based program utilizing more elongated pitches (SSGlw2; length-to-width ratio: 2.0) versus less elongated pitches (SSGwl1; length-to-width ratio: 1.0) on the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YYIRT), and 30-meter sprint. This study employed a randomized controlled design. Forty-eight male soccer players (16.4 ± 0.6 years) participated. These players were randomly allocated to two experimental groups (N = 16, SSGlw1; N = 16, SSGlw2) and underwent two weekly additional training sessions over an 8-week period, while a group of 16 players continued with their regular in-field sessions as a control group. Evaluations were conducted before and after the intervention period. Significant interactions time u group were observed in regards YYIRT (F = 15.857; p < 0.001; = 0.413) and 30-m sprint test (p < 0.001). Between-group differences on YYIRT were found in post-intervention (p < 0.001), on which SSGlw2 (p < 0.001) and SSGlw1 (p < 0.001) were significantly greater in comparison to control group. Additionally, between-group differences on 30-m sprint were found in post-intervention (p < 0.001), on which SSGlw2 was significantly better than SSGlw1 (p < 0.001) and control group (p < 0.001). Coaches are advised to prioritize the use of more elongated pitch sizes to promote adaptations in sprint performance, while still acknowledging that aerobic capacity improvements remain significant compared to other pitch shapes.

Validity of Session Rating of Perceived Exertion for Measuring Training Load in Youth Team Handball Players.

ABSTRACT: Pedersen, A, Randers, MB, Luteberget, LS, and Møller, M. Validity of session rating of perceived exertion for measuring training load in youth team handball players. J Strength Cond Res 37(1): 174-180, 2023-Session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) is a subjective self-reported measure of training load and is a popular method in several different team sports. This study aimed to investigate the validity of sRPE, by correlating sRPE load (sRPE × minutes of training) and heart rate (HR) expressed as Edwards Summated Heart Rate Zones (SHRZ) and PlayerLoad among Danish youth team handball players. Second, the study aimed to investigate sRPE load's ability to descriptively differentiate between a low and a high training load category. A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted in the in-season period. Fourteen training sessions were measured from 6 teams, in which PlayerLoad, Edwards SHRZ, and sRPE load were measured for the training session and collected from 47 subjects (23 males and 24 females). Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficients were calculated between sRPE load and Edwards SHRZ and PlayerLoad. Furthermore, a high and a low load category were made from PlayerLoad or Edwards SHRZ to investigate sRPE load's ability to discriminate between high and low objective load. Large correlations between sRPE load and Edwards SHRZ (0.52 [95% CI 0.27:0.70]) and between sRPE load and PlayerLoad (0.67 [95% CI 0.47:0.80]) were observed. Our findings further indicate that sRPE load can differentiate between a high and a low training load category in both Edwards SHRZ and PlayerLoad. Our results show that sRPE load reflects both internal and external load during team handball training sessions and seems to discriminate between high- and low-intensity training sessions. These results support the validity of sRPE load for measuring training load in young team handball players.

The reliability, validity and sensitivity of an individualised sub-maximal fitness test in elite rugby league athletes.

We aimed to examine the reliability, validity and sensitivity of an individualised sub-maximal fitness test (SMFTIFT60). Nineteen elite rugby league players performed a one-week test-retest of SMFTIFT60. Typical Errors and ICCs were: small (<3.5%) and extremely high (>0.90) for accelerometer-derived variables; moderate (<2.5% points) and moderate to very high (0.71-0.89) for exercise and recovery heart rate (HRex and HRR, respectively). Convergent validity correlations with the 10-week pre-season change in 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test performance were large for changes in SMFTIFT60 HRex (r = -0.57) and HRR (0.60), and very large for changes in accelerometer measures (range: -0.71 to -0.79). For sensitivity, within-player dose-response relationships between SMFTIFT60 HRex and prior 3-day training loads were negative and ranged from moderate (session ratings of perceived exertion [sRPE-TL], r = -0.34), to large (high-speed running distance, -0.51; acceleration load, -0.73) and very large (heart rate Training Impulse [TRIMP], -0.83). All other relationships were unclear or trivial to small. Physiological and accelerometer-derived measures from the SMFTIFT60 are reliable and valid for the assessment of fitness in rugby league players. Only HRex appears sensitive to acute changes in training load. The SMFTIFT60 could be a useful monitoring tool in team sports.

Monitoring Training Load in Soccer: The ROMEI Model.

ABSTRACT: Montini, M and Rocchi, JE. Monitoring training load in soccer: The Relation of Ongoing Monitored Exercise in Individual model. J Strength Cond Res 36(9): 2566-2572, 2022. For a training organization, monitoring training load (TL) is of paramount importance. Despite this, a conclusive response on such topic is yet to be reported. The aims of this study were to investigate the relationship between TL indicators and to propose a new method for monitoring TL response and physical fitness. Twenty professional soccer players were retrospectively evaluated. The first phase of data analysis included 34 in-season training sessions. Subsequently, three microcycles (T1-T2-T3) of pre-season training were processed. A regression model was used to examine the relationships between internal TL (session rating of perceived exertion [s-RPE]) and external TL (energy expenditure, EE). The standard error of the regression equation was used to propose a new model called "ROMEI" (Relation of Ongoing Monitored Exercise in Individual). The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. During the competitive season and the pre-season training camp, the average TL values were 65.8 ± 22 and 58.2 ± 22 minutes; 336 ± 204 and 228 ± 101 AU of s-RPE; and 29 ± 13 and 25 ± 9 kJ kJ -1 of EE, respectively. In the competitive season, the collective and average individual correlation coefficients between s-RPE and EE were r = 0.888 and r = 0.892 ± 0.05, respectively. Considering slope values ( m ) of the regression line, data highlighted a significant increase of +34.4 ± 15.9% in T2 vs. T3 ( p < 0.001) and +38.2 ± 15.2% in T1 vs. T3 ( p < 0.001). Data shown in this investigation support the use of an individualized analysis to better understand the TL administered to soccer players rather than a collective analysis. This may be accomplished with the proposed ROMEI model.

Validation of Internal and External Load Metrics in NCAA D1 Women's Beach Volleyball.

ABSTRACT: Tometz, MJ, Jevas, SA, Esposito, PM, and Annaccone, AR. Validation of internal and external load metrics in NCAA D1 women's beach volleyball. J Strength Cond Res 36(8): 2223-2229, 2022-The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of internal and external load metrics in NCAA D1 women's beach volleyball. Subjects included 13 NCAA D1 women's beach volleyball players (age: 20.3 ± 1.4 years). A total of 578 data points were analyzed from 51 team training sessions, including practice, games, and sport-specific conditioning during the pre-season semester (15 weeks). Data points included Edward's training impulse (TRIMP) (228.0 ± 80.7 arbitrary units [AU]), session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) Load (532.5 ± 232.8 [AU]), distance covered (DC) in meters (2,635.4 ± 884.3 [m]), and daily environmental condition variables {(temperature (76.5 ± 13.7 [°F]), relative humidity (72.5 ± 13.2 [%]), and wet-bulb globe temperature (52.9 ± 19.9 [°F])}. The subjects wore Polar Team Pro heart rate monitors with global positioning system during each session. Subjects completed an sRPE questionnaire after every session. Pearson product moment correlations yielded statistically significant relationships (p < 0.01) between TRIMP and sRPE Load (r = 0.81), TRIMP and DC (r = 0.78), and sRPE Load and DC (r = 0.82). A forward selection multiple regression yielded that sRPE Load could predict TRIMP with the equation: TRIMPTometz = 78.735 + (sRPE Load * 0.28) (p < 0.001). These findings support sRPE Load as a valid alternative to TRIMP when monitoring internal loads in NCAA D1 women's beach volleyball. Session rating of perceived exertion Load may be more practical and accessible for teams. Distance covered should be considered when periodizing and monitoring training loads because of its relationship with internal loads.

Geometrical remodeling of the mitral and tricuspid annuli in response to exercise training: a 3-D echocardiographic study in elite athletes.

Intense exercise exposes the heart to significant hemodynamic demands, resulting in adaptive changes in cardiac morphology and function. Nevertheless, the athletic adaptation of the atrioventricular valves remains to be elucidated. Our study aimed to characterize the geometry of mitral (MA) and tricuspid (TA) annuli in elite athletes using 3-D echocardiography. Thirty-four athletes presented with functional mitral regurgitation (FMR) were retrospectively identified and compared with 34 athletes without mitral regurgitation (MR) and 34 healthy, sedentary volunteers. 3-D echocardiographic datasets were used to quantify MA and TA geometry and leaflet tenting by dedicated softwares. MA and TA areas, as well as tenting volumes, were higher in athletes compared with controls. MA area was significantly higher in athletes with MR compared with those without (8.2 ± 1.0 vs. 7.2 ± 1.0 cm2/m2, P < 0.05). Interestingly, athletes with MR also presented with a significantly higher TA area (7.2 ± 1.1 vs. 6.5 ± 1.1 cm2/m2, P < 0.05). Nonplanar angle describing the MA's saddle shape was less obtuse in athletes without MR, whereas the values of athletes with MR were comparable with controls. The exercise-induced relative increases in left ventricular (35 ± 25%) and left atrial (40 ± 29%) volumes were similar; however, the increment in the MA area was disproportionately higher (63 ± 23%, overall P < 0.001). The relative increase in TA area (40 ± 23%) was also higher compared with the increment in right ventricular volume (34 ± 25%, P < 0.05). Atrioventricular annuli undergo a disproportionate remodeling in response to regular exercise. Athletic adaptation is characterized by both annular enlargement and increased leaflet tenting of both valves. There are differences in MA geometry in athletes presented with versus without FMR.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have characterized the annular geometry of mitral and tricuspid valves in elite athletes using 3-D echocardiography. We have found that exercise-induced remodeling of the atrioventricular annuli comprises a disproportionate dilation of annular dimensions and increased leaflet tenting of both valves. Moreover, we have demonstrated a more pronounced saddle shape of the mitral annulus in athletes without mitral regurgitation, which was not present in those who had mild regurgitation.

Heart rate-based indices to detect parasympathetic hyperactivity in functionally overreached athletes. A meta-analysis.

Investigations into the sensitivity of heart rate-(HR) derived indices for tracking parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) changes in functionally overreached (F-OR) endurance-trained athletes have produced equivocal findings. Lack of clarity may be a result of methodological inconsistencies. Therefore, the aims of this systematic review and meta-analysis were (a) to determine the sensitivity of resting and post-exercise vagal-related HR variability (HRV) and HR recovery (HRR) indices to detect PNS modulation in F-OR and non-overreached (non-OR) athletes, and (b) to investigate the influence of methodological factors on the sensitivity of HR-based indices to detect PNS hyperactivity in F-OR athletes. We searched CENTRAL, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science up to May 2020 for the following terms: male and female endurance-trained athletes, controlled and uncontrolled studies that carried out an overload training period, and PNS modulation measured in resting and post-exercise, pre- and post-overload training period. A random-effects model of standardized mean difference (SMD) was estimated for each outcome measure based on the training-induced fatigue status (F-OR vs non-OR athletes), and the influence of methodological issues to detect PNS hyperactivity in F-OR was assessed by subgroup analyses. Pooled analysis showed that resting vagal-related HRV indices did not detect PNS hyperactivity in F-OR athletes (SMD+ = -0.01; 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.51, 0.50), and no statistical difference (P = .600) was found with non-OR athletes (SMD+ = 0.15; 95% CI = -0.14, 0.45). However, subgroup analysis based on HRV parameter showed a moderate statistical increase in weekly averaged HRV in F-OR athletes (SMD+ = 0.81; 95% CI = 0.35, 1.26), while isolated HRV values did not reach statistical significance (SMD+ = -0.45; 95% CI = -0.96, 0.06). We observed a moderate and statistically significant increase in HRR indices among F-OR athletes (SMD+ = 0.65; 95% CI = 0.44, 0.87), no changes for non-OR athletes (SMD+ = 0.10; 95% CI = -0.15, 0.34), and statistically significant differences between F-OR and non-OR athletes (P < .001). Insufficient data prevented meta-analysis for post-exercise vagal-related HRV indices. Our findings show that when methodological factors are considered, HR-based indices are sensitive to increased PNS modulation in F-OR.