Neo-Confucianism and the Development of German Idealism.

This article analyzes the influence of Chinese Neo-Confucianism on the development of German idealism. Information obtained by Leibniz from Jesuit missionaries included key concepts in Neo-Confucian philosophy that not only confirmed Leibniz's belief in the universality of his organic image of the cosmos but also influenced Leibniz's later writings. Such influence is also exhibited in Kant's work, especially in his crucial noumenon-phenomenon distinction, as well as in Hegel's phenomenology and philosophy of history. Recognition of these influences, unacknowledged by either Kant or Hegel, enhances our assessment of the import of both Neo-Confucianism and German idealism in international religio-philosophical discourse.

Selection and Management of Medical Official during the Yuan Dynasty.

Although the healthcare system of the Yuan Dynasty followed that of the Song Dynasty, there are certain differences between these two dynasties in terms of practices. Including appointing 'Yihus' in 'Zhusehuji' and setting up 'Guanyitijusi' to oversee Yihus, the Yuan Dynasty developed an effective management system for their physicians and, soon after the coronation of Khubilai, built 'Yixue (Medical school)' all over its territories in order to establish an organized and substantial medical training system. Moreover, the Yuan Dynasty not only revived the civil service examination system system between 1314 and 1320 as well as the medical examination system, but also increased the quota for qualification to twice that of Confucian examination in Song. These changes resulted in producing many brilliant people at the time. In the second half of the reign of Emperor Chengzong it was decided that the incompetence of the government healthcare organizations and the abundance of charlatans could not be neglected any longer. Existing policies and systems was limited in educating and training proper physicians, and this problem was not restricted to the field of medicine. The need for new systems that could reform the social order led to the restoration of the civil service examination system. The civil service examination system for Confucianism and for medicine began in 1314 and 1316, respectively. The purpose of the medical examination system was to select medical officials. The medical examination system which started in 1316 had a significant impact on the medicine of the Yuan dynasty for many reasons. Firstly, the qualification to apply to the medical examination did not remain constricted to 'Yixue' but opened to all 'Zhusehuji'; and secondly, the examination system did not have a restriction on the number of applicants was not restricted. The most important aspect of the examination system was that the number of test takers that passed the first test was one hundred and the number of passers of the second test were thirty, which were not low compared to the number of passers of the Confucianism examination. As such, the impact of the medical examination on the Yuan society was substantial. The Confucian examination selected 300 persons to pass the first test. The second test had 100 test takers which was equally divided among the four social classes at 25 percent each. The medical system selected 100 persons in the first test and 30 in the second. What is important is that unlike the Confucian examination system, the medical system was not divided into four classes. Hypothetically, the 30 qualified persons could all be South Chinese. In terms of the number of passers, it was much more promising for the South Chinese to flourish through the medical test than through Confucian examination test. Such facts support the claim that the Yuan Dynasty emphasized the field of medicine compared to the Song Dynasty. Although the Song Dynasty implemented the civil service examination system early on, the medical system was not implemented until 1115, which started with the founding of 'Yixue' across the country and assigning student capacity. During the Song Dynasty, the number of students in the medical system was 15 percent of that in the Confucianism system, and compared to that in Yuan, it raised to 30 percent, which is twofold. The indications of the Yuan Dynasty valuing medicine and making an effort to educate and train medical experts can be seen in the 'Yihu system', 'Guanyitijusi', Yixuetijusi', and medical school as well as the ratio of the medical system capacity.

Nonegalitarian Social Responsibility for Health: A Confucian Perspective on Article 14 of the UNESCO: Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights.

This essay offers a Confucian evaluation of Article 14 of the UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights, with a focus given to its statement that "the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being." It indicates that "a right to health" contained in the statement is open to two different interpretations, one radically egalitarian, another a decent minimum. It shows that Confucianism has strong moral considerations to reject the radical egalitarian interpretation, and argues that a Confucian nonegalitarian health distribution ethics of differentiated and graded love and obligation can reasonably be supported with a right to the decent minimum of health at the international level.

[Applying the Methodology and Practice of Microhistory: The Diary of a Confucian Doctor, Yi Mun-gǒn (1495-1567)].

Since microhistory's approach to the past is based on an understanding of and a sympathy for the concrete details of human lives, its area of interests overlaps with the history of medicine and medical humanities, which examine illness and health. If we put a specific region and society in a specific period under a microscope and increase the magnifying power, we can understand the numerous network connections among the body, illness management, and medicine and how multilayered were the knowledge and power applied to them. And this approach of using microhistory to illuminate medical history can be more effective than any other historical approach. This article focuses on Yi Mun-gǒn's extensive volumes of Mukchaeilgi (Mukchae's diary) in approaching medical history from the perspective of microhistory. Simply defined, this work is a Confucian scholar-doctor's diary. Its author, Yi Mun-gǒn, played the role of a Confucian doctor, although not professionally, during his 23-year exile, after serving in a high governmental office on the senior grade of the third court rank. Thanks to this extensive and detailed diary, we can now get adetailed andthorough picture of his medical practice in the Sǒngju region, 270 kilometers southeast of Seoul, where he was exiled. This article aims to understand the state of medical practice in the Sǒngju region in the 16thcentury through the"zoom-in" method adopted by microhistory. In particular, I will focus on the following three aspects:1) Yi Mun-gǒn's motivation for and method of medical study, 2)the character of Yi Mun-gǒn'spatient treatment as hwarin (the act of life-saving), and 3) the plural existence of various illness management methods, including pyǒngjǒm (divination of illness), sutra-chanting, exorcism, and ch'oje (ritual toward Heaven). All three aspects are closely related to Confucianism. First, Yi Mun-gǒn decided to acquire professional-level medical knowledge in order to practice the Confucian virtue of filial piety. He sharpened his medical knowledge during the process of caring for his ill mother. In Confucian Chosǒn society, a patient was encouraged to be deeply involved in the process of his or her medical treatment and the space of clinical treatment was not an exclusive domain for the doctor, but for public discussion, where both doctor and patient participated in making the best medical choices. In this atmosphere, a patient's family members would also naturally learn the clinical process, not unlike today's interns learning from renowned doctors. Second, after studying medicine up to a professional level, Yi Mun-gǒn administered the "life-saving" medicine to many people, yet he did not open his doors to all individuals. His medicine was practiced within his social network of blood, regional, and intellectual relations, where priority was established according to the level of closeness to himself, according to Confucian ideology. Nevertheless, because he did partially accept patients outside of these networks, his practice setin motion the symbolic system of Confucian ideal of universal "life-saving."Third, in the Sǒngju region during the 16thcentury, various methods of treating illnesses-such as medicine, divination, sutra-chanting, exorcism, and kumyǒngsisik (life-saving, food-offering ritual)-co-existed and were selected according to individual conditions. Confucianism did not want to either acknowledge or outright reject most of these methods, except for officially acknowledged medicine, at that time. In fact, this coexistence was inevitable because there was not one entirely effective means of curing illness at that time. Also, the system of Confucian ideology was not powerful enough to enforce what it championed. On the contrary, behind the outer austerity of Confucian society, people sought out unorthodox methods, such as exorcism, Buddhism, and Taoism-ironically, in order to practice the important Confucian values of filial piety and patrilineage in the face of their parents' or sons'illnesses. It was only after the emergence of modern ideology and methodology of hygiene, which had the ability to control epidemics and prioritize the preservation of the life of individuals and the population, following the opening of the port in the late 19th century, that this pluralistic culture for illness management became much less prevalent.

Values and health care: the Confucian dimension in health care reform.

Are values and social priorities universal, or do they vary across geography, culture, and time? This question is very relevant to Asia's emerging economies that are increasingly looking at Western models for answers to their own outmoded health care systems that are in dire need of reform. But is it safe for them to do so without sufficient regard to their own social, political, and philosophical moorings? This article argues that historical and cultural legacies influence prevailing social values with regard to health care financing and resource allocation, and that the Confucian dimension provides a helpful entry point for a deeper understanding of ongoing health care reforms in East Asia--as exemplified by the unique case of Singapore.

Caring for older adults: the parables in Confucian texts.

Confucianism is one of the frequently mentioned social factors in the research of care for the older adults in East Asian countries such as China, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea. Although Confucian philosophy functions as a powerful source of reference for care, the context of care in Confucian texts is not yet largely studied in nursing. This column focuses on the meaning of care in two key Confucian texts, the Analects and Mencius. The context of care in Confucian texts should provide a sound foundation and substantial understanding for researchers studying care in East Asian society.

[On NAKAGAMI Kinkei's Seiseido Rogosetsu (a commentary on Rongo): bibliography, philology, and philosophy of medicine].

NAKAGAMI, Kinkei's Seiseido Rogosetsu is one of his main works. It has been handed down merely as a manuscript copy. It conveys the contents regarding Kinkei's own understanding of the phrases in the Rongo, his inquiry on those sentences based on the shapes of characters, and his will for revolution. He wrote this volume because he was influenced by OGYU Sorai's commentary and he wanted to clarify his own profound medical view based on the idea that Confucianism and medicine were derived from one common origin. Accordingly, his understanding of the Rongo is above the level of a mere commentary and it has a profound philosophy of medicine.

An introduction to Chinese psychology--its historical roots until the present day.

In this article the authors review the historical development of Chinese psychology. China's long history as a country immersed in the study of psychological issues is well known and has had an influence on developments in the field of psychology around the world. Modern Chinese psychology, however, was imported from the West and the Soviet Union and has been closely linked with China's social environment and changes of national policy. Today Chinese psychology is still in a preliminary stage. Despite difficulties that may impede its future development, the importance of psychology in the modernization of China has been widely recognized.

Applying the Methodology and Practice of Microhistory: The Diary of a Confucian Doctor, Yi Mun-gon (1495-1567) / 의사학

Since microhistory's approach to the past is based on an understanding of and a sympathy for the concrete details of human lives, its area of interests overlaps with the history of medicine and medical humanities, which examine illness and health. If we put a specific region and society in a specific period under a microscope and increase the magnifying power, we can understand the numerous network connections among the body, illness management, and medicine and how multilayered were the knowledge and power applied to them. And this approach of using microhistory to illuminate medical history can be more effective than any other historical approach. This article focuses on Yi Mun-gon's extensive volumes of Mukchaeilgi (Mukchae's diary) in approaching medical history from the perspective of microhistory. Simply defined, this work is a Confucian scholar-doctor's diary. Its author, Yi Mun-gon, played the role of a Confucian doctor, although not professionally, during his 23-year exile, after serving in a high governmental office on the senior grade of the third court rank. Thanks to this extensive and detailed diary, we can now get adetailed andthorough picture of his medical practice in the Songju region, 270 kilometers southeast of Seoul, where he was exiled. This article aims to understand the state of medical practice in the Songju region in the 16thcentury through the"zoom-in" method adopted by microhistory. In particular, I will focus on the following three aspects: 1)Yi Mun-gon's motivation for and method of medical study, 2)the character of Yi Mun-gon'spatient treatment as hwarin (the act of life-saving), and 3) the plural existence of various illness management methods, including pyongjom (divination of illness), sutra-chanting, exorcism, and ch'oje (ritual toward Heaven). All three aspects are closely related to Confucianism. First, Yi Mun-gon decided to acquire professional-level medical knowledge in order to practice the Confucian virtue of filial piety. He sharpened his medical knowledge during the process of caring for his ill mother. In Confucian Choson society, a patient was encouraged to be deeply involved in the process of his or her medical treatment and the space of clinical treatment was not an exclusive domain for the doctor, but for public discussion, where both doctor and patient participated in making the best medical choices. In this atmosphere, a patient's family members would also naturally learn the clinical process, not unlike today's interns learning from renowned doctors. Second, after studying medicine up to a professional level, Yi Mun-gon administered the "life-saving" medicine to many people, yet he did not open his doors to all individuals. His medicine was practiced within his social network of blood, regional, and intellectual relations, where priority was established according to the level of closeness to himself, according to Confucian ideology. Nevertheless, because he did partially accept patients outside of these networks, his practice setin motion the symbolic system of Confucian ideal of universal "life-saving." Third, in the Songju region during the 16thcentury, various methods of treating illnesses-such as medicine, divination, sutra-chanting, exorcism, and kumyongsisik (life-saving, food-offering ritual)-co-existed and were selected according to individual conditions. Confucianism did not want to either acknowledge or outright reject most of these methods, except for officially acknowledged medicine, at that time. In fact, this co-existence was inevitable because there was not one entirely effective means of curing illness at that time. Also, the system of Confucian ideology was not powerful enough to enforce what it championed. On the contrary, behind the outer austerity of Confucian society, people sought out unorthodox methods, such as exorcism, Buddhism, and Taoism-ironically, in order to practice the important Confucian values of filial piety and patrilineage in the face of their parents' or sons'illnesses. It was only after the emergence of modern ideology and methodology of hygiene, which had the ability to control epidemics and prioritize the preservation of the life of individuals and the population, following the opening of the port in the late 19th century, that this pluralistic culture for illness management became much less prevalent.

[Comments on the Confucian physician].

Confucianism gradually permeated and influenced the development of TCM from the Song dynasty, and the term "Confucian physician" is still in use today. With the impact of Confucianism, whether in the compilation of the medical classics or the explanation and conclusion of the medical theories as well as in medical education and ethics, all developed dramatically. But the Confucianism had also a negative effect on the development of medicine. For example, SU Dong-po cured the epidemics with "Sheng san zi", but he exaggerated its action and recorded it. The later intellectuals learnt from him without differentiation and many people suffered. Another example is, with the influence of ideas of "serve the parents" and "help the public", adult children treated their parents by cutting their own thigh. Even some wealthy and intelligent people blindly applied the prescription without differentiation.

[The relationships of Zhang Jing-yue's three theories of the Supreme Ultimate].

Under the influence of Supreme Ultimate of Neo-Confucianism, Zhang Jing-yue put forward the three theories of the Supreme Ultimate, viz., Supreme Ultimate of the Primordial Qi, Supreme Ultimate of the Heart, and Supreme Ultimate of the Vital Gate. These three theories were of trinity relationship, forming the basic frame of Jingyue's system of medical theories. Among them, the theory of Supreme Ultimate of the Primordial Qi was the foundation of natural concept in his medical theories, the theory of Supreme Ultimate of the Vital Gate was the teleology of his medical theories, and the theory of Supreme Ultimate of the Heart, as a cognitive method, was the methodology of his medical theories. Jing-yue' s medical theories were constructed on these three corner-stays, which was a tremendous leap forward in the development of traditional Chinese medicine and Neo-Confucianism.

[Influences of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism on Chinese Medical Formulas in Jin-Tang Dynasties].

In the Jin-Tang Dynasties, when Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism contended, conflicted and well blent, forming a state of mingled thoughts of the three sects. It exerted profound influences on Chinese Medical Formulas and promoted the academic fashion of compiling books about medical formulas characterized by collecting various formulas especially the simple and proved recipes. This plays a role in the formation of the formulas used in the Jin-Tang Dynasties, featuring simplicity, convenience, cheapness, and effectiveness, different from those of other periods.

[The conception of healthcare in Confucianism].

As the founder of Confucianism, Confucius lead a life of frustration and experienced all difficulties. Interestingly, he enjoyed a long life of over seventy years old. Naturally, his viewpoint on healthcare aroused the interests of late-comers He first emphasized the morality, claiming that those kind people can live long, advocated the doctrine of the mean, open-minded and optimism, exercise of the body and mind, dietary hygiene, avoidance of ghost, and taking care of medication. As the important integral part of Chinese traditional culture, Confucianism also yields profound influence on the development of healthcare in China.

[Huang Zongxi and medicine].

Being a very famous Confucianist, Huang Zongxi also had indepth understanding in medicine. When dealing with the famous physicians of his native land in eastern Zhejiang province, such as Zhang Jiebin, Zhao Xianke, Gao Doukui, Huang, in addition to his positive appraisal on these persons' contribution to the theory of Warm diseases, particularly Zhang Jiebin, also made comments dialectically on their detrimental effect of the Theory of Warm - benefiting on the society and the rash action of denying the theory of cold pathogenic disorders and even ignoring channel - collaterals, but biasing to only one channel, particularly that carried in Zhao Xianke's Yi Guan (Medical Permeation).

[Influence of Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties on the theory of traditional Chinese medicine].

The academic style of study and thoughts of Neo - Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties improved the innovation of contemporary physicians and their recognition on the research of medical theories, and strengthened the development of determination of treatment based on the differentiation of symptoms and signs. Its related contents, such as taiji, circulation and change of vital energy, substance and functions, and congenital and postnatal etc. also were absorbed as the elements of medical theories. However, there were some negative influences from Neo - Confucianism on the development of traditional Chinese medicine.

Doctor-family-patient relationship: the Chinese paradigm of informed consent.

Bioethics is a subject far removed from the Chinese, even from many Chinese medical students and medical professionals. In-depth interviews with eighteen physicians, patients, and family members provided a deeper understanding of bioethical practices in contemporary China, especially with regard to the doctor-patient relationship (DPR) and informed consent. The Chinese model of doctor-family-patient relationship (DFPR), instead of DPR, is taken to reflect Chinese Confucian cultural commitments. An examination of the history of Chinese culture and the profession of medicine in China is used to disclose the deep roots of these commitments. The author predicts that the DFPR model will further develop in China but that it will maintain its Chinese character.

A Confucian defense of gender equity.

The oppression of Chinese women is typically blamed on Confucianism. We present a version of Confucianism that relies on the metaphysics of the I Ching, one of the "canonical" Confucian texts, and on more characteristic Confucian doctrines. These metaphysical, anthropological, and ethical beliefs would, if fully implemented, replace the early Confucian hierarchy based partly on gender with a hierarchy based on virtue. This would in turn legitimate the full participation of women in society. Through the "canonical" Confucian texts we reconstruct the philosophical grounds for a Confucian vision of gender equity as grounded in a Confucian view of human nature and human excellence.