[The professions of colonial pharmacist in French West Africa]. / Les métiers de pharmacien colonial en Afrique occidentale française.

During the twentieth century, French colonial rule in West Africa was marked by the establishment of a homogeneous health organization in the colonies. It was based on the health service of the colonial troops, the hospital service under the general service and other services such as health police, epidemics and hygiene. This health system made it possible to protect the colonizers and indigenous populations from the major endemics of the time, to conduct research on new diseases hitherto unrecognized and to bring "civilization" to the overseas territories. The pharmacist's missions in the colonial health system were manifold. Our study aims to shed light on the profession of colonial pharmacist in the health history of French West Africa. To do this, it concerned the period between the creation of the Federation of French West Africa (1895) and the end of colonization (1960). Drawing on the available documentation, including archival material and bibliographic sources, this article shows that the colonial pharmacist was already exercising a multidisciplinary profession. He was in fact hospital manager, wholesaler-distributor, pharmacy, biologist, chemist, botanist, teacher, central actor in public health.

The founding and activities of the Pharmacy Division of the Vilnius Medical Society.

The Pharmacy Division of the Vilnius Medical Society was founded in 1819. It was the first and only pharmacy organization in Lithuania until the beginning of the 20th century. At the time of its founding, there were only three other pharmacy organizations in the Russian Empire: the Riga Chemical-Pharmaceutical Society (1803), the Mitau (now Jelgava) Pharmacy Society (1808) and the St. Petersburg Pharmacy Society (1818). The Division did much to improve the practice of pharmacy, enhance pharmaceutical knowledge and education, support and encourage pharmaceutical research, as well as provide a forum for discussion of all matters of interest and concern to the pharmacy profession. Through its publications, rich library and study collections, pharmacists in Vilnius and the Vilnius governorate stayed abreast of all the major developments and discoveries in the medical and pharmaceutical sciences. After the closing of Vilnius University in 1832 and of the Vilnius Medical-Surgical Academy in 1842, the Vilnius Medical Society, and hence its Pharmacy Division, lost its academic base. Pharmaceutical chemistry suffered especially. Pharmacists turned their attention to their practices and business interests. Their interest in the Society waned and their membership dwindled. In the beginning of the 20th century, especially after Lithuania regained its independence in 1918, other organizational opportunities opened up to them.

"Physician's prescriptions accurately prepared" - The Mid-Nineteenth-Century Prescription Books of Four Gloucester Chemists.

Britain's mid-nineteenth-century healthcare economy has often been described as a "medical marketplace" in which struggling doctors faced intense competition from a range of unqualified rivals. Chemists and druggists, who proliferated in industrial cities and supposedly prospered by exploiting the poor and the gullible, are widely regarded as having presented a serious threat to medical livelihoods. However, the activities of four Gloucester chemists show how the dispensing of medical prescriptions brought individual chemists and doctors closer together. Competition between chemists and druggists for this trade was intense and it was instrumental in establishing them as trusted community pharmacists and giving impetus to the process of professionalization. Prescription books, an under-represented source in the literature, also show that customers for prescription medicines were surprisingly socially diverse and that most prescriptions were collected by women, with significant variation in dispensing activity through the week. This, and the volume of prescriptions being dispensed, suggest prescription medicines were regularly being used to treat chronic and less serious ailments, where collection could await normal shopping days. Significantly, prescriptions were the property of the patients and could be re-presented whenever they thought fit. For some patients, it thus effectively became an instrument of self-medication.

Pharmacists among Members of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province.

Based on a profound examination and evaluation of archival materials, the paper reconstructs the lives of eighteen pharmacists - members of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province from the 17th to the 19th century, of which sixteen served as monastic pharmacists. In addition to the identified biographical data (based on archival materials), the Latin summary reports on the life of a particular capuchin on the occasion of his death (the so-called elogia) from the Capuchin Provincial Chronicle (Annales capucinorum) are edited, together with their commented Czech translation. The discovered data allow a deeper insight into the pharmaceutical history of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province, where three monastic pharmacies were operated in Brno, Prague in Hradčany and Olomouc, and also a monastic pharmaceutical study was established. The published material also provides some new data on contemporary pharmaceutical practice, which are set in the context of literature. The paper illustrates the transfer of knowledge between the world of secular and monastic pharmacy at the places where future monastic pharmacists received their education (the pharmacies “The White Eagle” in Karlovy Vary, the pharmacy of brothers hospitallers in Prostějov, “The Golden Eagle” in Opava, “The White Unicorn” in the Old Town of Prague). The paper also highlights the intensive involvement of monastic pharmacists in the management of plague epidemics in the years 1680-1713 (often at the cost of their own lives), as well as the above-standard proximity to the patients in monastic hospitals in carrying out routine nursing and pharmacy practice. The paper adds sharper contours to the image of the pharmacist at that time by detailing the life stories of individual pharmacists (e.g., the previous career as a military surgeon and the iconographic circumstances of death, or the career extension in the form of participation in the order meetings in Rome). Analysis of the preserved manuscript Annotationes medicae Fr. Absolonis from the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries not only introduces an interesting pharmaceutical memorabilia, but also illustrates the professional maturation of the last Capuchin pharmacist. In the final part of the paper, the data about twenty-two pharmacists who unsuccessfully tried to join the Capuchin Order are given. It not only demonstrates admission practice in the Capuchin order, in which spiritual interest outweighed the practical, but also bears witness to other pharmaceutical phenomena of the time, such as the fate of the pharmacist from the abolished Jesuit Order or the development of pharmacy in the Carthusian monastery in Valdice.

Karl Blumenreuter (1881-1969): Himmler's chief pharmacist and medical supply quartermaster of the SS.

The present article elucidates the role and function of SS Gruppenführer Karl Blumenreuter (1881-1969), the leading pharmacist of the SS. The aim is to clarify how he participated in the crimes of the Nazi Party and especially the SS during the "Third Reich" and the extent to which he was brought to justice after 1945. Central elements of the study are based on researched archival primary sources. The latter were compared with each other and supplemented with the currently available secondary literature on the subject. It can be established that Blumenreuter was a zealous National Socialist with marked career ambitions who advanced within the SS to the rank of SS Gruppenführer and Lieutenant General of the Waffen SS (Generalleutnant der Waffen SS). He supplied pre-measured phenol ampoules for the murder of prisoners in the concentration camps. Blumenreuter furthermore organised equipment and material supplies for various experiments on humans. After 1945 he succeeded in playing down his participation in the crimes in the time of National Socialism. Blumenreuter died in 1969 without having being brought to justice by the judiciary and without having reflected self-critically on his role in the "Third Reich".

Pharmacy, pharmacists and drugs in the Terezín ghetto.

The article describes the phenomenon of a pharmacy in the Jewish ghetto in Terezín (Theresienstadt) in connection with the local healthcare system and the history of this ghetto. It lists the names of the Czechoslovak Jewish pharmacists who passed through this ghetto, including their fates, whether they survived or were murdered in extermination concentration camps or died as a result of the cruel living conditions in the ghetto. The article discusses the fate of the so-called Mischlingskinder ("mixed children", i.e., persons deemed to have both "Aryan" and Jewish ancestry) and "Aryan" men and women from the so-called "mixed" marriages. In a separate section, the attention is also paid to the fate of Jewish pharmacists from Germany and Austria. In all chapters, the data illustrated by the fate of some pharmacists are stated. Key words: Jews pharmacy Terezín ghetto pharmacist shoah.

Activities of Latvian pharmacists in the Latvian Red Cross organization in exile in Germany (1945-1976).

The Latvian Red Cross has performed its assistance mission outside the territory of Latvia for several decades. In the 40-s of the 20th century, the state of Latvia and its people went through one of the most tragic pages of their history. Due to the re-occupation made by the Soviet Union in 1944, many people of Latvia fled to exile and under exile conditions the Latvian societies, parishes and public organizations came into being, including the Latvian Red Cross. It started its activities in the second part of the 40-s of the 20th century in Germany and then representative offices emerged in the U.S.A., Sweden, France, Italy, Denmark, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand. Special attention should be paid to the fact that the activity under exile conditions was of a large scale, well-organized and long-lasting. Substantial work at that time has been done by a number of pharmacists. Among them, the pharmacist and doctor Hugo Skudins (1903-1976) should be emphasized, who organized the purveyance of medication and sending them to Latvians in the occupied Latvia and to the penal camps in Siberia.

[The image of a good pharmacist in the works of Saladin di Ascoli and Valerius Cordus]. / Obraz dobrého lekárnika v diele Saladina z Ascola a Valeria Corda.

Separation of pharmacy from medicine induced the requirements formulation for an ideal pharmacist. Two prominent authors did so, Saladin di Ascoli (the first half of the XVth century) in the work Compendium aromatariorum (1488) and Valerius Cordus (1515-1544) in the work Dispensatorium pharmacopolarum (1546). Both of them formulate similar postulates of both professional and ethical nature, namely a knowledge of Latin, good education, experience, good character traits, need of satisfied marriage; both say that the pharmacist is required to be a good Christian, they condemn alcohol, relationships with women, poisons and abortifacients, remember right relationship to money. In addition, Cordus adds a good financial situation. Their considerations had a great impact on further development of pharmacy across Europe.Key words: Saladin di Ascoli Valerius Cordus ideal pharmacist.

[The fate of Jewish pharmacists from the Czech Lands during the holocaust]. / Osudy zidovských farmaceutu z ceských zemí behem holocaustu.

The authors describe the lives of several Jewish pharmacists and their families who lived and worked in the Czech Lands during the years 1918-1945. Their stories represented a typical mosaic, which corresponds to the fate of the Jewish community in the Czech Lands during World War II - all lost their property and the majority of them were murdered or lost their immediate families. Only a few of them succeeded to survive thanks to early emigration. Some of them lived until the liberation of the concentration camp Theresienstadt, too.Key words: Jews pharmacy shoah concentration camp Auschwitz.

[Chemistry and Pharmacy in the Journal of the Academy of Medical Medicine (1836-1843)]. / La química y la farmacia en el Periódico de la Academia de Medicina de Mégico (1836-1843).

This paper analyzes the articles published on chemicals and pharmaceuticals in the Periódico de la Academia de Medicina de Mégico. Through these publications it is possible to illustrate the transformation in the study of medical material of the era. At the same time, it shows discussions held by doctors and pharmacists about scientific news and analysis of local therapeutic resources.

Craft, money and mercy: an apothecary's self-portrait in sixteenth-century Bologna.

The apothecary occupied a liminal position in early modern society between profit and healing. Finding ways to distance their public image from trade was a common problem for apothecaries across Europe. This article uses the case of a Bolognese apothecary, Filippo Pastarino, to address the question of how early modern apothecaries chose to represent themselves to political authorities and to the wider public. 'Mercy', alongside 'craft', was a pillar of apothecaries' social identity. By contrast, no matter how central financial transactions ('money') were to their activity, apothecaries did not want to be perceived as merchants. Thus, the assistance and advice apothecaries provided to patients and customers resulted as central aspects of their social role. In this context, Bolognese apothecaries aimed to defend their current status, which had been challenged by naturalist Ulysses Aldrovandi, city authorities and local monasteries. However, Pastarino's claims can also be seen as antecedents to the self-legitimizing strategy that seventeenth-century artisans deployed when faced with the need to enhance their new status as natural philosophers. The present study attributes a name, a date of birth and a shop to Filippo Pastarino, revising previous interpretations. More broadly, by focusing on how these artisans defended their position in the city it enriches our understanding of the self-representation of apothecaries.

[Charles Ménière (1816-1887) : pharmacist and historian of the pharmacists who were in practice in the town of Angers].

Charles Ménière (1816-1887) was the young brother of the doctor Prosper Menière (1799-1862), who was the obstetrician of the Duchess of Berry, the doctor in chief of the deaf-mute Institution and an erudite ear specialist. Charles learned pharmacy in Paris. Coming back to Angers he bought a chemist's shop. In 1871 he became the chief pharmacist of the Hôtel-Dieu. In 1857 he joined the Academic Society of Angers and presented many consequent papers between them one can find notes concerning the history of the Angers's pharmacists. Its researches relate to pharmacology, mineralogy, hydrology and even philology.

[The pharmacist and deputy Henri Schmidt, the law voted in 1913 and said «for three years¼ and the position of mobilized pharmacists at the beginning of First World War].

Henri Schmidt was, with his fellow the senator Paul Cazeneuve, the main defender of the mention of pharmacists and pharmacy students in the articles of the law voted in 1913 for the recruitment of the army. After the description of their interventions to attain this end, and a short biography of these two politicians, the paper explains the activities of the pharmaceutical parliamentary group, during the early years of the war, in view to obtain the admittance in the medical corps of the pharmacists and students unprovided of rank, for the new creation of «auxiliary pharmacists¼, for the appointment as soon as possible of the maximum number of colleagues at this rank, and then for their promotion to the rank of «aide-major¼, resolution that appeared more difficult to obtain.

Early decades of Madras Medical College: Apothecaries.

The Government at Fort St George determined that a school for instructing and training candidates towards the titles of 'apothecary' was necessary to improve medical help to people in the 1830s. This led to the establishment of the medical school in Madras (presently Chennai) in 1835. The school got renamed as the Madras Medical College in 1850. From 1835, the Madras Medical School offered formal training to personnel to be called either 'apothecaries' or 'dressers' under the superintendence of William Mortimer, who was assisted by George Harding in teaching at the school. Apothecary D'Beaux and Dresser P. S. Muthuswami Mudaliar were subordinate assistants. These apothecaries were recruited essentially under the Subordinate Medical Service of Madras, which was established in 1812 and included non-commissioned medical servants. The Madras apothecaries launched the Madras Apothecaries Society in 1864, which aimed at promoting and advancing medical science and knowledge. This society existed until 1871. Formal training of apothecaries ceased in Madras by the later decades of the 19th century, although informal training continued, especially for army cadets and women. Establishment of medical schools in Royapuram (which developed as the Stanley Medical College and Hospital), Tanjavur and Madurai, in the early decades of the 20th century and the 'branch' of Madras Medical College in Calicut during the Second World War changed the complexion of training of medical personnel immensely in pre- 1947 Madras Presidency. The Royapuram and other Medical Schools in Madras trained medical practitioners granting the title 'Licensed Medical Practitioner' (LMP). Whether the apothecary-dresser training at the 'old' Madras Medical College had a role to play in these developments remains to be verified.

The pharmacy in Gersfeld/Rhoen and Veit Jakob Metz (1792-1866).

A "Privileg" for a pharmacy in Gersfeld (Rhoen) was issued October 26, 1788 by the ruler of Gersfeld, the Reichsfreiherr Amand von Ebersberg (1747- 1803), to Peter Franz Wilhelm Feuchter (1766-1835). Feuchter was not only a dedicated pharmacist but also scholarly active both by publishing and by serving on various journal editorial boards. Vitus Jacobus Metz (1792-1866) was accepted 1808 as an apprentice in the pharmacy and later enjoyed private lessons from Feuchter (until around 1813, when he gave up the study of pharmacy to pursue medical studies in Würzburg). This major decision was possibly influenced by Metz experiencing the outcome of a dispute between pharmacist Feuchter and the physician Andreas Laubreis (*1778), dispute with an outcome favoring the physician. As a physician Metz great achievement was to establish 1830 the Mariannen-Institut, the lying-in asylum in Aachen, Bendelstrasse, the first such institution in Germany. How revolutionary and way ahead of its time the Mariannen-Institut really was can only be understood considering that it took over half a century until a similar institution, the second one in Germany, opened in Düsseldorf. With this short contribution we attempt to shed some light on the life and family of Veit Jakob Metz from Römershag (Bad Brückenau) and on the Gersfeld pharmacy, the place that played such a major role in shaping his personality.

Profile: Joseph Marek: 2016-17 ASCP President.

It was four months in Alaska, in the middle of winter, that changed Joseph Marek's view of what it means to be a pharmacist. Marek was on his last rotation in pharmacy school when he experienced the kind of practice that he wanted for himself. He found that kind of practice as a consultant pharmacist, and next month, Marek, 49, will become the 2016-2017 president of the American Society of Consulting Pharmacists. Working at the Public Health Service (PHS) in the Arctic Circle in 1990, he dispensed and carried out clinical duties with the chief pharmacist and provided care to the native Inuit population through the Indian Health Service. "PHS had a walk-in clinic where the physicians worked closely with the pharmacist to do medication management for the patients," he said. The pharmacists also provided medications to the surrounding villages (50,000 square miles) and had to coordinate the dispensing/delivery of these medications when the physicians visited them. "The doctors highly valued the pharmacists' clinical knowledge, and it was a great environment to learn how to collaborate with the medical/health care team to benefit the Inuits," he said. "Everyone worked together and you could see the outcomes quickly."

[Fragments of a correspondence between the Parisian pharmacist Émile Vial and the Dutch painter Johan-Barthold Jongkind]. / Fragments d'une correspondance entre le pharmacien parisien Émile Vial et le peintre néerlandais Johan-Barthold Jongkind.

We study a series of exchanged original letters between the Parisian pharmacist art lover Émile Vial (1833-1917) and the Dutch painter Johan-Barthold Jongkind (1819 - 1891) from april 13th, 1876 till February 1th, 1887.

[The apothecaries of the Saint-Honoré district of Paris in the 17th century. The apothecaries Antoine and Jacques Grégoire and Louis XIII's first painter, Simon Vouet].

This article presents the biographies of the apothecaries who lived in the Rue Saint-Honoré in Paris in the 17th century. Two major facts emerge from this study. The first concerns the formation of a family network involving the apothecaries and the royal artists. The apothecaries Antoine and Jacques Grégoire became allied with Simon Vouet, the first painter of Louis XIII . Links were also made between Antoine Grégoire and Jacques Sarazin, the King's sculptor, and then with Michel Corneille, painter to the King. The famous painting by Simon Vouet hanging in the assembly hall of the Faculty of Pharmacy in Paris is probably the fruit of his collaboration with Jacques Grégoire, his brother-in-law and an erudite botanist. The other notable fact concerns the relations between Anne de Furnes, widow of Antoine Brulon, the rich apothecary to the King Antoine Brulon, and Molière, both in Paris and in the village of Auteuil. The other notable fact concerns the relations between Anne de Furnes, widow of Antoine Brulon, the rich apothecary to the King Antoine Brulon, and Molière, both in Paris and in the village of Auteuil.

[Pierre Pomet (1658-1699) and his Histoire des drogues (History of drugs) (1694 & 1735)].

Pierre Pomet is a Parisian, but as all great botanists, he liked travelling and bringing back sample of drugs that he was ultimately showing during his course at the Jardin des Plantes (Royal Herbs garden in Paris). Member of druggists and groceries storekeepers' Community, he was not allowed to establish himself as an apothecary in Paris. It is as drug expert that he wrote and published in 1694 his "General History of Drugs, concerning herbs, animals and minerals, book enriched with more than 400 copper-plate engravings designed from nature : with explanations of their various names, their countries of origin, the way to differentiate them from falsified ones, and their properties, where one can see the errors coming from Ancients and modern writers ; the whole being very useful for the public". This book was translated into English in 1712 and German in 1717. It is part of the reference books of the 17th century for pharmacy. In his introduction, Pierre Pomet explains that his goal is to avoid for drugs errors and falsifications that very frequent at that time. The book is then dedicated not only to physicians, apothecaries or students, etc., but also to all that used drugs.

[1916 and the two major pharmaceutical journals at that time : the " Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie", the official journal of the Pharmacist' Society of Paris, and the " Bulletin des sciences pharmacologiques"].

When looking at the content of both of them in the middle of the First World War, indeed one can see a number of articles related to the war, but also several other topics : it is the year of the new law on toxic drugs with the creation of A, B and C classification of drugs. The controversy about pharmaceutical specialties and the growing influence of the pharmaceutical industry still remain an important issue in 1916. It is also an eventful year for the history of pharmacy, three years after the creation of the French Society of History of Pharmacy. One can read also several biographies of pharmacists who died in 1916, not only in relation to war, and of famous pharmacists like Gerhardt (not only for the discovery of aspirin) who was born one century ago. macy, three years after the creation of the French Society of History of Pharmacy. One can read also several biographies of pharmacists who died in 1916, not only in relation to war, and of famous pharmacists like Gerhardt (not only for the discovery of aspirin) who was born one century ago.