Identification of Risk Genes Associated with Myocardial Infarction-Big Data Analysis and Literature Review.

Acute myocardial infarction occurs when blood supply to a particular coronary artery is cut off, causing ischemia or hypoxia and subsequent heart muscle destruction in the vascularized area. With a mortality rate of 17% per year, myocardial infarction (MI) is still one of the top causes of death globally. Numerous studies have been done to identify the genetic risk factors for myocardial infarction, as a positive family history of heart disease is one of the most potent cardiovascular risk factors. The goal of this review is to compile all the information currently accessible in the literature on the genes associated with AMI. We performed a big data analysis of genes associated with acute myocardial infarction, using the following keywords: "myocardial infarction", "genes", "involvement", "association", and "risk". The analysis was done using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Data from the title, abstract, and keywords were exported as text files and imported into an Excel spreadsheet. Its analysis was carried out using the VOSviewer v. 1.6.18 software. Our analysis found 28 genes which are mostly likely associated with an increased risk for AMI, including: PAI-1, CX37, IL18, and others. Also, a correlation was made between the results obtained in the big data analysis and the results of the review. The most important genes increasing the risk for AMI are lymphotoxin-a gene (LTA), LGALS2, LDLR, and APOA5. A deeper understanding of the underlying functional genomic circuits may present new opportunities for research in the future.

Galectin-2 in Health and Diseases.

Galectin-2 is a prototype member of the galactoside-binding galectin family. It is predominately expressed in the gastrointestinal tract but is also detected in several other tissues such as the placenta and in the cardiovascular system. Galectin-2 expression and secretion by epithelial cells has been reported to contribute to the strength of the mucus layer, protect the integrity of epithelia. A number of studies have also suggested the involvement of galectin-2 in tissue inflammation, immune response and cell apoptosis. Alteration of galectin-2 expression occurs in inflammatory bowel disease, coronary artery diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, and pregnancy disorders and has been shown to be involved in disease pathogenesis. This review discusses our current understanding of the role and actions of galectin-2 in regulation of these pathophysiological conditions.

Alternative exon splicing and differential expression in pancreatic islets reveals candidate genes and pathways implicated in early diabetes development.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) has a strong genetic component. Most of the gene variants driving the pathogenesis of T2D seem to target pancreatic ß-cell function. To identify novel gene variants acting at early stage of the disease, we analyzed whole transcriptome data to identify differential expression (DE) and alternative exon splicing (AS) transcripts in pancreatic islets collected from two metabolically diverse mouse strains at 6 weeks of age after three weeks of high-fat-diet intervention. Our analysis revealed 1218 DE and 436 AS genes in islets from NZO/Hl vs C3HeB/FeJ. Whereas some of the revealed genes present well-established markers for ß-cell failure, such as Cd36 or Aldh1a3, we identified numerous DE/AS genes that have not been described in context with ß-cell function before. The gene Lgals2, previously associated with human T2D development, was DE as well as AS and localizes in a quantitative trait locus (QTL) for blood glucose on Chr.15 that we reported recently in our N2(NZOxC3H) population. In addition, pathway enrichment analysis of DE and AS genes showed an overlap of only half of the revealed pathways, indicating that DE and AS in large parts influence different pathways in T2D development. PPARG and adipogenesis pathways, two well-established metabolic pathways, were overrepresented for both DE and AS genes, probably as an adaptive mechanism to cope for increased cellular stress. Our results provide guidance for the identification of novel T2D candidate genes and demonstrate the presence of numerous AS transcripts possibly involved in islet function and maintenance of glucose homeostasis.

Gene polymorphisms of LGALS2, LGALS3 and LGALS9 in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a complicated rheumatic autoimmune disease. Lectin, galactoside-binding soluble, 2 (LGALS2), LGALS3 and LGALS9, three members of the galectin family, play potential roles in autoimmune diseases, including RA. However, association of genetic polymorphisms of LGALS2, LGALS3 and LGALS9 with RA risk in a Southern Chinese Han population has not been elucidated. A case-control study was conducted herein, including 500 RA patients and 650 healthy individuals of Southern Chinese Han origin. Twelve single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), including rs7291467 for the LGALS2 gene, rs4644, rs4652, rs1009977, rs2274273 and rs17128183 for the LGALS3 gene, and rs4795835, rs3763959, rs4239242, rs3751093, rs732222 and rs4794976 for the LGALS9 gene, were genotyped. Polymorphisms were genotyped using the KASP method. Frequencies of rs1009977 genotype TG and rs3751093 genotype GA of LGALS3 gene were significantly different between RA patients and healthy controls (P = 0.049, P = 0.033). Allele T and genotypes TT and TT + TG of rs4794976 for LGALS9 gene were significantly correlated with RA risk (P = 0.017, P = 0.012, P = 0.041). Subgroup analysis revealed that rs1009977, rs2274273 and rs17128183 polymorphisms of LGALS3 gene and rs4795835 polymorphism of LGALS9 gene were correlated with several RA clinical manifestations (all P < 0.05). In addition, haplotype GCGTT showed an increased risk for RA (OR = 1.216, 95% CI: 1.028-1.438, P = 0.023), whereas haplotype GCGTG showed a reduced risk for RA susceptibility (OR = 0.779, 95% CI: 0.625-0.971, P = 0.026). In conclusion, LGALS3 and LGALS9 gene polymorphisms may associate with RA predisposition in a Southern Chinese Han population.

The in vivo roles of galectin-2 from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in immune response against bacterial infection.

Our previous study has recorded that the recombinant protein of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) galectin-2 (rOnGal-2) can enhance immune response against Streptococcus agalactiae (S.agalactiae) infection in vitro. In this study, we further explored the effects of OnGal-2 in immune response against bacterial infection in vivo. The administration of rOnGal-2 could improve serum antibacterial activity (ALKP, ACP, and LZM) and antioxidant capacity (CAT, POD, and SOD). After S. agalactiae infection, rOnGal-2 injection could reduce bacterial burden and decrease tissue damage in head kidney, spleen, and liver of tilapia. Also, rOnGal-2 regulated the inflammatory-related genes expression including IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10 during bacterial infection. Furthermore, rOnGal-2 administration could increase the relative percentage survival of tilapia infected with S.agalactiae. Taken together, our results indicate that OnGal-2 can protect fish from bacterial infection through reducing bacterial burden, impairing tissue damage and modulating anti-bacterial immune response, which also can be applied as a potential vaccine adjuvant in O.niloticus culture.

Placental Galectin-2 Expression in Gestational Diabetes: A Systematic, Histological Analysis.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is the most common pregnancy-associated metabolic disorder that negatively impacts on the health of both mothers and their offspring in the long-term. The molecular mechanisms involved are not fully understood. As in other states of insulin resistance, a disproportionate immune response in GDM leads to a state of chronic low-grade inflammation. Galectin-2 exerts regulatory effects on different immune cells. This study investigated galectin-2 expression in the placenta of 40 GDM patients and 40 controls, in a sex-specific manner. Immunohistochemistry was used for semi-quantitative analysis of expression strength. The phenotypes of galectin-2 expressing cells were characterized through double immunofluorescence. We found a significant up-regulation of galectin-2 in the fetal syncytiotrophoblast, as well as in the maternal decidua of GDM placentas. Double staining showed a strong galectin-2 expression in extra villous trophoblast cells and fetal endothelial cells in GDM. These findings present the first systematic investigation of galectin-2 in GDM. The findings contribute to the emerging understanding of the role of immunomodulation and inflammation in GDM and of galectin-2 itself. This might also have implications for the long-term cardiovascular health of the offspring.

Characterization of Galectin-2 from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) involved in the immune response to bacterial infection.

galectin-2 plays important roles in innate and adaptive immunity. In this study, galectin-2 (OnGal-2) was identified from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Its tissue distribution and expression patterns following bacterial infection were also investigated. OnGal-2 is widely distributed in various tissues of healthy tilapia. After Streptococcus agalactiae challenge, OnGal-2 expressions were significantly up-regulated in all tested tissues. Meanwhile, the recombinant OnGal-2 (rOnGal-2) protein showed strong agglutinating activities against both Gram-negative bacteria and Gram-positive bacteria. Moreover, rOnGal-2 could promote phagocytosis of macrophages. Taken together, the present study indicated that OnGal-2 might play roles in the immune responses of Nile tilapia against bacterial pathogens.

Characterisation and functional comparison of single-CRD and multidomain containing galectins CgGal-2 and CgGal-3 from oyster Crassostrea gigas.

Galectins are ß-galactoside binding lectins that play crucial roles in innate immunity in vertebrates and invertebrates through their conserved carbohydrate-recognition domains (CRDs). In the present study, single- and four-CRD-containing galectins were identified in oyster Crassostrea gigas (designated CgGal-2 and CgGal-3). The open reading frames (ORFs) of CgGal-2 and CgGal-3 encode polypeptides of 200 and 555 amino acids, respectively. All CRDs of CgGal-3 include two consensus motifs essential for ligand-binding, and a novel motif is present in CgGal-2. Pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) profiles were determined for recombinant rCgGal-2 and rCgGal-3, and rCgGal-2 displayed low binding affinity for PAMPs, while rCgGal-3 bound various PAMPs including glucan, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and peptidoglycan (PGN) with relatively high affinity. Furthermore, rCgGal-2 and rCgGal-3 exhibited different microbe binding profiles; rCgGal-2 bound to Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Vibrio vulnificus) and fungi (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris), while rCgGal-3 bound to these microbes but also to Gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus luteus). In addition, rCgGal-3 possessed microbial agglutinating activity and coagulation activity against fungi and erythrocytes, respectively, but rCgGal-2 lacked any agglutinating activity. Carbohydrate binding specificity analysis showed that rCgGal-3 specifically bound D-galactose. Furthermore, rCgGal-2 and rCgGal-3 functioned as opsonin participating in the clearance against invaders in C. gigas. Thus, CgGal-2 with one CRD and CgGal-3 with four CRDs are new members of the galectin family involved in immune responses against bacterial infection. Differences in the organisation and amino acid sequences of CRDs may affect their specificity and affinity for nonself substances.

Identification of Galectin-2-Mucin Interaction and Possible Formation of a High Molecular Weight Lattice.

Galectins comprise a group of animal lectins characterized by their specificity for ß-galactosides. Galectin-2 (Gal-2) is predominantly expressed in the gastrointestinal tract and has been identified as one of the main gastric mucosal proteins that are proposed to have a protective role in the stomach. As Gal-2 is known to form homodimers in solution, this may result in crosslinking of macromolecules with the sugar structures recognized by Gal-2. In this study, we report that Gal-2 could interact with mucin, an important component of gastric mucosa, in a ß-galactoside-dependent manner. Furthermore, Gal-2 and mucin could form an insoluble precipitate, potentially through the crosslinking of mucins via Gal-2 and the formation of a lattice, resulting in a large insoluble complex. Therefore, we suggest that Gal-2 plays a role in the gastric mucosa by strengthening the barrier structure through crosslinking the mucins on the mucosal surface.

Molecular genetics of coronary artery disease.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) including myocardial infarction (MI) is a common disease and among the leading cause of death in the world. The onset of CAD depends on complex interactions of environmental and genetic factors. To clarify the genetic architecture of MI, we started a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using nearly 100 000 gene-based single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from 2000, and identified LTA associated with the increased risk of MI in Japanese population. To our knowledge, this is the first study identified a genetic factor for common disease by GWAS in the worldwide. Through examining the LTA cascade by combination of molecular biological and genetic analyses, we have identified additional MI susceptible genes, LGALS2, PSMA6 and BRAP, so far. Nowadays a lot of large-scale GWAS have identified numerous genetic risk factors for common diseases. In CAD, 51 loci with GWAS significance (P<5 × 10(-8)) have collectively identified by recent large-scale GWAS mainly in Caucasian descent. In this review, we discuss recent advances in molecular genetics for CAD.

Human galectin-2 interacts with carbohydrates and peptides non-classically: new insight from X-ray crystallography and hemagglutination.

Galectin-2 (Gal-2) plays a role in cancer, myocardial infarction, immune response, and gastrointestinal tract diseases. The only reported crystal structure of Gal-2 shows that it is a dimer in which the monomer subunits have almost identical structures, each binding with one molecule of lactose. In this study, we crystallized Gal-2 under new conditions that produced three crystal structures. In each Gal-2 dimer structure, lactose was shown to be bound to only one of the carbohydrate recognition domain subunits. In solution studies, the thermal shift assay demonstrated that inequivalent monomer subunits in the Gal-2 dimer become equivalent upon ligand binding. In addition, galectin-mediated erythrocyte agglutination assays using lactose and larger complex polysaccharides as inhibitors showed the structural differences between Gal-1 and Gal-2. Overall, our results reveal some novel aspects to the structural differentiation in Gal-2 and expand the potential for different types of molecular interactions that may be specific to this lectin.

Placental Expression Patterns of Galectin-1, Galectin-2, Galectin-3 and Galectin-13 in Cases of Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR).

Galectins (gal) are members of the mammalian ß-galactoside-binding proteins and recognize Galß1-4GlcNAc and Galß1-4GalNac (Thomsen-Friedenreich antigen (TF)) sequences of several cell surface oligosaccharides. In this study, gal-1, -2, -3 and -13 were investigated systematically in the trophoblast and decidua compartment of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) placentas and normal third trimester control placentas and stratified by fetal gender and gestational age. Within this study, 29 third trimester placentas after delivery were analyzed. Fetal gender was equally divided within both groups, and immunohistochemical staining was analyzed according to fetal gender and gestational age. Double immune-fluorescence with trophoblast-specific markers was used to identify galectin-expressing cells at the feto-maternal interface in the decidua. Gal-3 was significantly downregulated only in the extravillous trophoblast of IUGR placentas. In contrast, expressions of gal-2 and gal-13 were downregulated in both villous and extravillous trophoblast cells of IUGR placentas. In addition, gal-2 and gal-13 showed a highly correlated expression scheme in the placenta. There are significant gender-specific expression patterns for single prototype galectins with downregulation of gal-2 and gal-13 of male gender placentas in cases of IUGR. Gal-3 as the chimera type galectin shows only little gender-specific differences in expression, which disappear in IUGR cases.

Single-site mutational engineering and following monoPEGylation of the human lectin galectin-2: effects on ligand binding, functional aspects, and clearance from serum.

The emerging insights into the physiological significance of endogenous lectins prompted us to characterize the effect of monosubstitution with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG; 5 kDa) on a human lectin. As role model, we used a member of the galectin family, that is, galectin-2, the Cys57Met (single-site) mutant and its monoPEGylated derivative. The activities of these three proteins were comparatively studied by biochemical, cell biological, and histochemical methods, using surface-immobilized glycoproteins, different types of cells presenting gangliosides or (glyco)proteins as counterreceptors in vitro and tissue sections. PEGylation led to decreases in affinity/signal intensity with context dependence. The introduction of the mutation, too, can influence reactivity. Assays on haemagglutination and inhibition of cell proliferation underscored that mutational engineering and substitution can (but must not necessarily) affect this protein's activity. Serum clearance in rats was markedly retarded by PEGylation. Overall, the bulky substitution, spatially comparable to N-glycans, can markedly reduce binding of the galectin to physiological binding sites.

Galectin-2 expression is dependent on the rs7291467 polymorphism and acts as an inhibitor of arteriogenesis.

AIMS: In patients with obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD), the growth of collateral arteries, i.e. arteriogenesis, can preserve myocardial tissue perfusion and function. Monocytes modulate this process, supplying locally the necessary growth factors and degrading enzymes. Knowledge on factors involved in human arteriogenesis is scarce. Thus, the aim of the present study is to identify targets in monocytes that are critical for arteriogenesis in patients with CAD. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 50 patients with a chronic total coronary occlusion were dichotomized according to their collateral flow index. From each patient, RNA was isolated from unstimulated peripheral blood monocytes, monocytes stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or interleukin (IL)-4, and from macrophages. Increased mRNA expression of galectin-2 was found in three out of four monocytic cell types of patients with a low capacity of the collateral circulation (P= 0.03 for unstimulated monocytes; P= 0.02 for LPS-stimulated monocytes; P= 0.20 for IL-4-stimulated monocytes; P= 0.02 for macrophages). Additionally, galectin-2 mRNA expression was significantly associated with the rs7291467 polymorphism in LGALS2 encoding galectin-2 in all four monocytic cell types. Patient with the rs7291467 CC genotype displayed highest galectin-2 expression, and also tended to have a lower arteriogenic response. To evaluate the effect of galectin-2 on arteriogenesis in vivo, we used a murine hindlimb model. Treatment with galectin-2 markedly impaired the perfusion restoration at Day 7. CONCLUSION: Collectively, these results identify galectin-2 as a novel inhibitor of arteriogenesis. Modulation of galectin-2 may constitute a new therapeutic strategy for the stimulation of arteriogenesis in patients with CAD.

In vivo multidimensional CRISPR screens identify Lgals2 as an immunotherapy target in triple-negative breast cancer.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors exhibit limited response rates in patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), suggesting that additional immune escape mechanisms may exist. Here, we performed two-step customized in vivo CRISPR screens targeting disease-related immune genes using different mouse models with multidimensional immune-deficiency characteristics. In vivo screens characterized gene functions in the different tumor microenvironments and recovered canonical immunotherapy targets such as Ido1. In addition, functional screening and transcriptomic analysis identified Lgals2 as a candidate regulator in TNBC involving immune escape. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that tumor cell-intrinsic Lgals2 induced the increased number of tumor-associated macrophages, as well as the M2-like polarization and proliferation of macrophages through the CSF1/CSF1R axis, which resulted in the immunosuppressive nature of the TNBC microenvironment. Blockade of LGALS2 using an inhibitory antibody successfully arrested tumor growth and reversed the immune suppression. Collectively, our results provide a theoretical basis for LGALS2 as a potential immunotherapy target in TNBC.

Galectin-2 suppresses contact allergy by inducing apoptosis in activated CD8+ T cells.

Galectins, a family of structurally related beta-galactoside-binding proteins, are expressed by various cells of the immune systems and seem to be important for the regulation of immune responses and immune cell homeostasis. Since it has been demonstrated that galectin-2 regulates cell-mediated inflammatory bowel disease and colitis in mice, we intended to investigate the role of galectin-2 in inflammatory cutaneous T cell-mediated immune responses. To address this issue, groups of naive mice were sensitized to the contact allergen 2,4-dinitro-1-fluorobenzene and systemically treated with galectin-2 to analyze the effects of galectin-2 on contact allergy. Here we show that galectin-2 is expressed in murine skin and is up-regulated upon cutaneous inflammation. Interestingly, treatment of mice with galectin-2 significantly reduced the contact allergy response. This effect was long-lasting since rechallenge of galectin-2-treated mice after a 14-day interval still resulted in a decreased ear swelling. We were able to demonstrate that galectin-2 induced a reduction of MHC class I-restricted immune responses in the treated animals, which was mediated by the induction of apoptosis specifically in activated CD8(+) T cells. Additionally, we report that the galectin-2-binding protein CD29 is up-regulated on the surface of activated CD8(+) T cells compared with naive CD8(+) T cells or CD4(+) T cells, suggesting that increased galectin-2/CD29 signaling might be responsible for the proapoptotic effects of galectin-2 on activated CD8(+) T cells. Taken together, these data indicate that galectin-2 may represent a novel therapeutic alternative for the treatment of CD8-mediated inflammatory disorders such as contact allergy.

Age-related susceptibility to severe malaria associated with galectin-2 in highland Papuans.

BACKGROUND: Age and host genetics are important determinants of malaria severity. Lymphotoxin-alpha (LTalpha) has been associated with the development of cerebral malaria (CM) and other severe malaria (SM) syndromes. Mutations in genes regulating LTalpha production contribute to other acute vascular diseases and may contribute to malaria pathogenesis. METHODS: We tested the association between rs7291467, a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the LTalpha-related gene encoding galectin-2 (LGALS2), disease severity, and function in a case-control study of ethnic Highland Papuan adults and children with SM (n = 380) and asymptomatic malaria-exposed controls (n = 356) originating from a non-malaria-endemic region but residing in a lowland malaria-endemic area of Papua, Indonesia. RESULTS: The LGALS2 SNP showed a significant association with susceptibility to SM (including CM), in children (odds ratio, 2.02 [95% confidence interval, 1.14-3.57]) but not in adults. In SM, the C allele at rs7291467 was associated with enhanced galectin-2 transcript levels. In a separate group of Tanzanian children originating from a malaria-endemic region, we found preservation of the major ancestral LGALS2 allele and no association with susceptibility to CM. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest differences in the inflammatory contribution to the development of SM between children and adults in the same population and potential differences between individuals originating from malaria-endemic and non-malaria-endemic areas.

Syndecan 4, galectin 2, and death receptor 3 (DR3) as novel proteins in pathophysiology of preeclampsia.

INTRODUCTION: Preeclampsia has the highest rate of obstetric morbidity and mortality. METHODS: We recruited 21 women with preeclampsia and 27 women with uncomplicated pregnancies. We used a quantitative protein macroarray that allowed for analysis of 40 proteins. RESULTS: We found a statistically significant increase in the concentration of DR3, LIF and a significant decrease of VEGF, PlGF, syndecan-4 and galectin-2, in the plasma of women with preeclampsia. CONCLUSIONS: There are no previous studies assessing syndecan 4, galectin 2, and DR3 concentrations in women with preeclampsia; Our results indicate these proteins are new factors that play important roles in the immunological pathomechanism of preeclampsia.

Genome-wide CRISPR screen identifies LGALS2 as an oxidative stress-responsive gene with an inhibitory function on colon tumor growth.

Colorectal cancer is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States and the third most common cancer in men and women. Around 20% colon cancer cases are closely linked with colitis. Both environmental and genetic factors are thought to contribute to colon inflammation and tumor development. However, the genetic factors regulating colitis and colon tumorigenesis remain elusive. Since reactive oxygen species (ROS) is vitally involved in tissue inflammation and tumorigenesis, here we employed a genome-wide CRISPR knockout screening approach to systemically identify the genetic factors involved in the regulation of oxidative stress. Next generation sequencing (NGS) showed that over 600 gRNAs including the ones targeting LGALS2 were highly enriched in cells survived after sublethal H2O2 challenge. LGALS2 encodes the glycan-binding protein Galectin 2 (Gal2), which is predominantly expressed in the gastrointestinal tract and downregulated in human colon tumors. To examine the role of Gal2 in colitis, we employed the dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced acute colitis model in mice with (WT) or without Lgals2 (Gal2-KO) and showed that Gal2 deficiency ameliorated DSS-induced colitis. We further demonstrated that Gal2-KO mice developed significantly larger tumors than WT mice using Azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colorectal cancer model. We found that STAT3 phosphorylation was significantly increased in Gal2-deficient tumors as compared to those in WT mice. Gal2 overexpression decreased the proliferation of human colon tumor epithelial cells and blunted H2O2-induced STAT3 phosphorylation. Overall, our results demonstrate that Gal2 plays a suppressive role in colon tumor growth and highlights the therapeutic potential of Gal2 in colon cancer.

Functional variation in LGALS2 confers risk of myocardial infarction and regulates lymphotoxin-alpha secretion in vitro.

Myocardial infarction (MI) has become one of the leading causes of death in the world. Its pathogenesis includes chronic formation of plaque inside the vessel wall of the coronary artery and acute rupture of the artery, implicating a number of inflammation-mediating molecules, such as the cytokine lymphotoxin-alpha (LTA). Functional variations in LTA are associated with susceptibility to MI. Here we show that LTA protein binds to galectin-2, a member of the galactose-binding lectin family. Our case-control association study in a Japanese population showed that a single nucleotide polymorphism in LGALS2 encoding galectin-2 is significantly associated with susceptibility to MI. This genetic substitution affects the transcriptional level of galectin-2 in vitro, potentially leading to altered secretion of LTA, which would then affect the degree of inflammation; however, its relevance to other populations remains to be clarified. Smooth muscle cells and macrophages in the human atherosclerotic lesions expressed both galectin-2 and LTA. Our findings thus suggest a link between the LTA cascade and the pathogenesis of MI.