The system-neurophysiological basis for how methylphenidate modulates perceptual-attentional conflicts during auditory processing.

The ability to selectively perceive and flexibly attend to relevant sensory signals in the environment is essential for action control. Whereas neuromodulation of sensory or attentional processing is often investigated, neuromodulation of interactive effects between perception and attention, that is, high attentional control demand when the relevant sensory information is perceptually less salient than the irrelevant one, is not well understood. To fill this gap, this pharmacological-electroencephalogram (EEG) study applied an intensity-modulated, focused-attention dichotic listening paradigm together with temporal EEG signal decomposition and source localization analyses. We used a double-blind MPH/placebo crossover design to delineate the effects of methylphenidate (MPH)-a dopamine/norepinephrine transporter blocker-on the resolution of perceptual-attentional conflicts, when perceptual saliency and attentional focus favor opposing ears, in healthy young adults. We show that MPH increased behavioral performance specifically in the condition with the most pronounced conflict between perceptual saliency and attentional focus. On the neurophysiological level, MPH effects in line with the behavioral data were observed after accounting for intraindividual variability in the signal. More specifically, MPH did not show an effect on stimulus-related processes but modulated the onset latency of processes between stimulus evaluation and responding. These modulations were further shown to be associated with activation differences in the temporoparietal junction (BA40) and the superior parietal cortex (BA7) and may reflect neuronal gain modulation principles. The findings provide mechanistic insights into the role of modulated dopamine/norepinephrine transmitter systems for the interactions between perception and attention.

Glial dysfunction in the mouse habenula causes depressive-like behaviors and sleep disturbance.

The lateral habenula (LHb) regulates the activity of monoaminergic neurons in the brainstem. This area has recently attracted a surge of interest in psychiatry because studies have reported the pathological activation of the habenula in patients with major depression and in animal models. The LHb plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of depression; however, how habenular neurons are activated to cause various depression symptoms, such as reduced motivation and sleep disturbance, remain unclear. We hypothesized that dysfunctional astrocytes may cause LHb hyperactivity due to the defective uptake activity of extracellular glutamate, which induces depressive-like behaviors. We examined the activity of neurons in habenular pathways and performed behavioral and sleep analyses in mice with pharmacological and genetic inhibition of the activity of the glial glutamate transporter GLT-1 in the LHb. The habenula-specific inhibition of GLT-1 increased the neuronal firing rate and the level of c-Fos expression in the LHb. Mice with reduced GLT-1 activity in the habenula exhibited a depressive-like phenotype in the tail suspension and novelty-suppressed feeding tests. These animals also displayed increased susceptibility to chronic stress, displaying more frequent avoidant behavior without affecting locomotor activity in the open-field test. Intriguingly, the mice showed disinhibition of rapid eye movement sleep, which is a characteristic sleep pattern in patients with depression. These results provide evidence that disrupting glutamate clearance in habenular astrocytes increases neuronal excitability and depressive-like phenotypes in behaviors and sleep.

Allowing for non-adherence to treatment in a randomized controlled trial of two antidepressants (citalopram versus reboxetine): an example from the GENPOD trial.

BACKGROUND: Meta-analyses suggest that reboxetine may be less effective than other antidepressants. Such comparisons may be biased by lower adherence to reboxetine and subsequent handling of missing outcome data. This study illustrates how to adjust for differential non-adherence and hence derive an unbiased estimate of the efficacy of reboxetine compared with citalopram in primary care patients with depression. METHOD: A structural mean modelling (SMM) approach was used to generate adherence-adjusted estimates of the efficacy of reboxetine compared with citalopram using GENetic and clinical Predictors Of treatment response in Depression (GENPOD) trial data. Intention-to-treat (ITT) analyses were performed to compare estimates of effectiveness with results from previous meta-analyses. RESULTS: At 6 weeks, 92% of those randomized to citalopram were still taking their medication, compared with 72% of those randomized to reboxetine. In ITT analysis, there was only weak evidence that those on reboxetine had a slightly worse outcome than those on citalopram [adjusted difference in mean Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores: 1.19, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.52 to 2.90, p = 0.17]. There was no evidence of a difference in efficacy when differential non-adherence was accounted for using the SMM approach for mean BDI (-0.29, 95% CI -3.04 to 2.46, p = 0.84) or the other mental health outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: There was no evidence of a difference in the efficacy of reboxetine and citalopram when these drugs are taken and tolerated by depressed patients. The SMM approach can be implemented in standard statistical software to adjust for differential non-adherence and generate unbiased estimates of treatment efficacy for comparisons of two (or more) active interventions.

Drug-specific laterality effects on frontal lobe activation of atomoxetine and methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder boys during working memory.

BACKGROUND: The catecholamine reuptake inhibitors methylphenidate (MPH) and atomoxetine (ATX) are the most common treatments for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study compares the neurofunctional modulation and normalization effects of acute doses of MPH and ATX within medication-naive ADHD boys during working memory (WM). METHOD: A total of 20 medication-naive ADHD boys underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging during a parametric WM n-back task three times, under a single clinical dose of either MPH, ATX or placebo in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over design. To test for normalization effects, brain activations in ADHD under each drug condition were compared with that of 20 age-matched healthy control boys. RESULTS: Relative to healthy boys, ADHD boys under placebo showed impaired performance only under high WM load together with significant underactivation in the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Both drugs normalized the performance deficits relative to controls. ATX significantly enhanced right DLPFC activation relative to MPH within patients, and significantly normalized its underactivation relative to controls. MPH, by contrast, both relative to placebo and ATX, as well as relative to controls, upregulated the left inferior frontal cortex (IFC), but only during 2-back. Both drugs enhanced fronto-temporo-striatal activation in ADHD relative to control boys and deactivated the default-mode network, which were negatively associated with the reduced DLPFC activation and performance deficits, suggesting compensation effects. CONCLUSIONS: The study shows both shared and drug-specific effects. ATX upregulated and normalized right DLPFC underactivation, while MPH upregulated left IFC activation, suggesting drug-specific laterality effects on prefrontal regions mediating WM.

Extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) as adjunctive therapy in patients with generalized anxiety disorder and a history of inadequate treatment response: a randomized, double-blind study.

BACKGROUND: For many patients with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), first-line treatment does not lead to remission. This study investigated the efficacy and tolerability of adjunctive extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) in patients with GAD and an inadequate response to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). METHODS: Patients were randomized to quetiapine XR or placebo adjunctive to SSRI/SNRIs in an 11-week study. The primary endpoint was change from randomization to week 8 in Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) total score. Secondary variables were HAM-A psychic/somatic clusters, response, and remission, and Clinical Global Impression­Severity of Illness (CGI-S) score. RESULTS: A total of 409 patients received quetiapine XR (n=209) or placebo (n=200). The week 8 mean change in HAM-A total score was not statistically significant for quetiapine XR (­10.74; P=.079) vs placebo (­9.61). Secondary variables were generally consistent with the primary analysis, except for a significant reduction in HAM-A total score (week 1) and significant improvements in HAM-A psychic cluster and CGI-S total scores (week 8). Adverse events included dry mouth, somnolence, sedation, headache, and dizziness. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with GAD and an inadequate response to SSRI/SNRIs, adjunctive quetiapine XR did not show a statistically significant effect for the primary endpoint at week 8, although some secondary endpoints were statistically significant vs placebo. Quetiapine XR was generally well tolerated.

Supraspinal and spinal effects of L-trans-PDC, an inhibitor of glutamate transporter, on the micturition reflex in rats.

AIMS: Glutamate is a major excitatory transmitter in the central nervous system, controlling lower urinary tract function. Five types of glutamate transporters such as GLAST (EAAT1), GLT-1 (EAAT2), EAAC-1 (EAAT3), EAAT4, and EAAT5 have been cloned so far. In the current study we tested whether L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (L-trans-PDC), a non-selective inhibitor of glutamate transporters that increases endogenous glutamate concentration, can affect the micturition reflex in urethane anesthetized rats. METHODS: Continuous cystometrograms (CMG, 0.04 ml/min infusion rate) were performed in two groups of urethane-anesthetized rats. A group of 18 rats was used for intrathecal administration of 1-10 µg of L-trans-PDC via an intrathecal catheter. In the second group of 18 rats, 1-10 µg of L-trans-PDC were administered intracerebroventricularly via a catheter inserted into the lateral ventricle. Micturition parameters were recorded and compared before and after drug administration. RESULTS: Intrathecal administration of L-trans-PDC at 1, 3, and 10 µg (n = 6 per dose) increased intercontraction intervals in dose dependent fashion, but did not affect postvoid residual or basal pressure at any doses tested. Intracerebroventricular administration of L-trans-PDC at 1, 3, and 10 µg (n = 6 per dose) also increased intercontraction intervals in dose dependent fashion, but did not affect postvoid residual or basal pressure at any doses tested. CONCLUSIONS: The current results show that, in urethane-anesthetized rats, suppression of glutamate transporters by L-trans-PDC has an inhibitory effect on the micturition reflex at supraspinal and spinal sites, possibly via activation of glutamate-mediated inhibitory pathways.

Extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) as adjunctive therapy in patients with generalized anxiety disorder and a history of inadequate treatment response: a randomized, double-blind study.

BACKGROUND: For many patients with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), first-line treatment does not lead to remission. This study investigated the efficacy and tolerability of adjunctive extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) in patients with GAD and an inadequate response to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). METHODS: Patients were randomized to quetiapine XR or placebo adjunctive to SSRI/SNRIs in an 11-week study. The primary endpoint was change from randomization to week 8 in Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) total score. Secondary variables were HAM-A psychic/somatic clusters, response, and remission, and Clinical Global Impression­Severity of Illness (CGI-S) score. RESULTS: A total of 409 patients received quetiapine XR (n = 209) or placebo (n = 200). The week 8 mean change in HAM-A total score was not statistically significant for quetiapine XR (­10.74; P = .079) vs placebo (­9.61). Secondary variables were generally consistent with the primary analysis, except for a significant reduction in HAM-A total score (week 1) and significant improvements in HAM-A psychic cluster and CGI-S total scores (week 8). Adverse events included dry mouth, somnolence, sedation, headache, and dizziness. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with GAD and an inadequate response to SSRI/ SNRIs, adjunctive quetiapine XR did not show a statistically significant effect for the primary endpoint at week 8, although some secondary endpoints were statistically significant vs placebo. Quetiapine XR was generally well tolerated.

Innovation of novel 'Tab in Tab' system for release modulation of milnacipran HCl: optimization, formulation and in vitro investigations.

The study was aimed toward development of modified release oral drug delivery system for highly water soluble drug, Milnacipran HCl (MH). Novel Tablet in Tablet system (TITs) comprising immediate and extended release dose of MH in different parts was fabricated. The outer shell was composed of admixture of MH, lactose and novel herbal disintegrant obtained from seeds of Lepidium sativum. In the inner core, MH was matrixed with blend of hydrophilic (Benecel®) and hydrophobic (Compritol®) polymers. 3² full factorial design and an artificial neuron network (ANN) were employed for correlating effect of independent variables on dependent variables. The TITs were characterized for pharmacopoeial specifications, in vitro drug release, SEM, drug release kinetics and FTIR study. The release pattern of MH from batch A10 containing 25.17% w/w Benecel® and 8.21% w/w of Compritol® exhibited drug release pattern close proximal to the ideal theoretical profile (t(50%) = 5.92 h, t(75%) = 11.9 h, t(90%) = 18.11 h). The phenomenon of drug release was further explained by concept of percolation and the role of Benecel® and Compritol® in drug release retardation was studied. The normalized error obtained from ANN was less, compared with the multiple regression analysis, and exhibits the higher accuracy in prediction. The results of short-term stability study revealed stable chataracteristics of TITs. SEM study of TITs at different dissolution time points confirmed both diffusion and erosion mechanisms to be operative during drug release from the batch A10. Novel TITs can be a succesful once a day delivery system for highly water soluble drugs.

Randomized placebo- and active-controlled study of desvenlafaxine for menopausal vasomotor symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of desvenlafaxine (administered as desvenlafaxine succinate) vs. tibolone and placebo for menopausal vasomotor symptoms and the incidence of uterine bleeding. METHODS: This 12-week, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial was conducted at 35 sites in Europe, two sites in South Africa, and one site in Mexico. Postmenopausal women with ≥50 moderate or severe hot flushes per week (n = 485) were randomized to desvenlafaxine 100 mg/day, tibolone 2.5 mg/day, or placebo. Reduction in the average daily number of moderate and severe hot flushes at weeks 4 and 12 (primary endpoint) was evaluated using analysis of covariance. Safety assessments included incidence of uterine bleeding, adverse events, laboratory values, and vital signs. RESULTS: At week 12, no statistically significant difference was observed in reduction of the average daily number of moderate and severe hot flushes for desvenlafaxine (-5.78) vs. placebo (-5.82; p = 0.921), although time to 50% reduction was significantly less than placebo (13 vs. 26 days, p = 0.006). Hot flush reduction with tibolone (-8.21) was significantly greater than placebo (p < 0.001). Nausea was the most common adverse event with desvenlafaxine, was generally mild to moderate, and resolved within the first 2 weeks. Significantly more subjects experienced bleeding with tibolone (23%) vs. desvenlafaxine (12%; p < 0.024) or placebo (9%; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Desvenlafaxine did not separate from placebo in reducing the number of moderate to severe hot flushes at week 12, although it did allow women to achieve 50% reduction sooner than placebo. Tibolone did separate from placebo, but with smaller than expected effect. The placebo effect was high (57%). Adverse drug reactions were consistent with the known safety profile of desvenlafaxine, and significantly more women who received tibolone experienced episodes of bleeding compared with women who received desvenlafaxine or placebo.

Discontinuation of medications classified as reuptake inhibitors affects treatment response of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy.

RATIONALE: MDMA-assisted psychotherapy is under investigation as a novel treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The primary mechanism of action of MDMA involves the same reuptake transporters targeted by antidepressant medications commonly prescribed for PTSD. OBJECTIVES: Data were pooled from four phase 2 trials of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy. To explore the effect of tapering antidepressant medications, participants who had been randomized to receive active doses of MDMA (75-125 mg) were divided into two groups (taper group (n = 16) or non-taper group (n = 34)). METHODS: Between-group comparisons were made for PTSD and depression symptom severity at the baseline and the primary endpoint, and for peak vital signs across two MDMA sessions. RESULTS: Demographics, baseline PTSD, and depression severity were similar between the taper and non-taper groups. At the primary endpoint, the non-taper group (mean = 45.7, SD = 27.17) had a significantly (p = 0.009) lower CAPS-IV total scores compared to the taper group (mean = 70.3, SD = 33.60). More participants in the non-taper group (63.6%) no longer met PTSD criteria at the primary endpoint than those in the taper group (25.0%). The non-taper group (mean = 12.7, SD = 10.17) had lower depression symptom severity scores (p = 0.010) compared to the taper group (mean = 22.6, SD = 16.69). There were significant differences between groups in peak systolic blood pressure (p = 0.043) and diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.032). CONCLUSIONS: Recent exposure to antidepressant drugs that target reuptake transporters may reduce treatment response to MDMA-assisted psychotherapy.

Effects of duloxetine in treatment-refractory men with posttraumatic stress disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Although there is evidence that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors provide some benefit in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), most meta-analytical reviews have concluded that effect sizes are small and, moreover, that there may be relatively little benefit for some populations (e. g., combat veterans with co-morbid major depression, MDD). This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and tolerability of the dual reuptake inhibitor duloxetine in the treatment of PTSD and co-morbid MDD. METHODS: Twenty-one treatment refractory, male, combat-related patients with PTSD and co-morbid MDD were enrolled in a naturalistic study and twenty completed the trial. Duloxetine was given between 60 and 120 mg daily over 8 weeks. RESULTS: Duloxetine led to a significant improvement of PTSD-characteristic symptoms as well as co-morbid MDD. Duloxetine effectively reduced nightmares, which is important because decreasing nightmares has been associated with improved sleep in PTSD. DISCUSSION: The results of this naturalistic study suggest that duloxetine is an effective and well-tolerated treatment for patients with PTSD and co-morbid MDD. These initial results need to be extended to the study of women with PTSD.

Effects of monoamine depletion on the ketamine-induced locomotor activity of preweanling, adolescent, and adult rats: Sex and age differences.

Ketamine significantly increases the locomotor activity of rodents, however this effect varies according to the sex and age of the animal being tested. To determine the role monoamine systems play in ketamine's locomotor activating effects: (a) male and female preweanling, adolescent, and adult rats were pretreated with vehicle or the monoamine depleting agent reserpine (1 or 5 mg/kg), and (b) the behavioral actions of ketamine (20 or 40 mg/kg) were then compared to d-amphetamine (2 mg/kg) and cocaine (10 or 15 mg/kg). The ability of reserpine to deplete dorsal striatal dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) in male and female rats was determined using HPLC. Ketamine caused substantial increases in the locomotion of preweanling rats and older female rats (adolescents and adults), but had only small stimulatory effects on adolescent and adult male rats. When compared to cocaine and d-amphetamine, ketamine was especially sensitive to the locomotor-inhibiting effects of monoamine depletion. Ketamine-induced locomotion is at least partially mediated by monoamine systems, since depleting DA and 5-HT levels by 87-96% significantly attenuated the locomotor activating effects of ketamine in male and female rats from all three age groups. When administered to reserpine-pretreated rats, ketamine produced a different pattern of behavioral effects than either psychostimulant, suggesting that ketamine does not stimulate locomotor activity via actions at the presynaptic terminal. Instead, our results are consistent with the hypothesis that ketamine increases locomotor activity through a down-stream mechanism, possibly involving ascending DA and/or 5-HT projection neurons.

Dopamine and norepinephrine transporter inhibition for long-term fear memory enhancement.

Psychostimulants are highly effective cognitive-enhancing therapeutics yet have a significant potential for abuse and addiction. While psychostimulants likely exert their rewarding and addictive properties through dopamine transporter (DAT) inhibition, the mechanisms of their procognitive effects are less certain. By one prevalent view, psychostimulants exert their procognitive effects exclusively through norepinephrine transporter (NET) inhibition, however increasing evidence suggests that DAT also plays a critical role in their cognitive-enhancing properties, including long-term memory enhancement. The present experiments test the hypothesis that combined strong NET and weak DAT inhibition will mimic the fear memory-enhancing but not the addiction-related effects of psychostimulants in mice. We examined the effects of the high affinity NET inhibitors atomoxetine or nisoxetine and the low affinity DAT inhibitor bupropion, either alone or in combination, on short- and long-term memory of Pavlovian fear conditioning. We also examined the addiction-related effects of combined strong NET and weak DAT inhibition using conditioned place preference and a locomotor activity test. While atomoxetine or nisoxetine alone enhanced short-term fear memory, the addition of bupropion was required to significantly enhance long-term fear memory. Additionally, combined atomoxetine and bupropion did not produce substantial motor stimulation or place preference. These findings suggest that combining strong NET and weak DAT inhibition could lead to the development of a highly effective cognitive enhancer that lacks the potential for addiction.

Developmental emergence of power-law wake behavior depends upon the functional integrity of the locus coeruleus.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Daily amounts of sleep and wakefulness are accumulated in discrete bouts that exhibit distinct statistical properties. In adult mammals, sleep bout durations follow an exponential distribution whereas wake bout durations follow a power-law distribution. In infant Norway rats, however, wake bouts initially follow an exponential distribution and only transition to a power-law distribution beginning around postnatal day 15 (P15). Here we test the hypothesis that the locus coeruleus (LC), one of several wake-active nuclei in the brainstem, contributes to this developmental transition. DESIGN: At P7, rats were injected subcutaneously with saline or DSP-4, a neurotoxin that targets noradrenergic (NA) LC terminals. Then, at P21, sleep and wakefulness during the day and night were monitored. The effectiveness of DSP-4 treatment was verified by measuring NA, dopamine (DA), and serotonin (5-HT) concentration in cortical and non-cortical tissue using high performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: In relation to controls, subjects treated with DSP-4 exhibited significant reductions only in cortical and non-cortical NA concentration. Consistent with our hypothesis, the wake bout durations of DSP-4 subjects more closely followed an exponential distribution, whereas those of control subjects followed the expected power-law distribution. Sleep bout distributions were unaffected by DSP-4. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the fundamental developmental transition in the statistical structure of wake bout durations is effected in part by changes in noradrenergic LC functioning. Considered within the domain of network theory, the hub-like connectivity of the LC may have important implications for the maintenance of network function in the face of random or targeted neural degeneration.

Desvenlafaxine for the treatment of vasomotor symptoms associated with menopause: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of efficacy and safety.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to assess the efficacy and safety of desvenlafaxine (administered as desvenlafaxine succinate) for the treatment of vasomotor symptoms. STUDY DESIGN: This was a 26 week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 567 postmenopausal women (mean age, 53.7 years; time since natural menopause, 4.8 years) experiencing 50 or more hot flushes (HFs) per week, randomly assigned to desvenlafaxine (100 or 150 mg) or placebo. Change from baseline in average daily number of moderate to severe HFs and average daily HF severity were compared with placebo at weeks 4, 12, and 26. RESULTS: A significantly greater decrease from baseline in number of HFs occurred at weeks 4 and 12 with 100 and 150 mg desvenlafaxine compared with placebo (week 12 reductions: 60%, 66%, and 47%, respectively; all P < or = .002). Only the 150 mg dose showed significant improvement from baseline at 26 weeks compared with placebo (week 26 reductions: 61%, 69%, and 51%, respectively), although the study was not powered to demonstrate efficacy beyond the initial 12 weeks of therapy. The average daily severity decreased significantly more at weeks 4 and 12 with desvenlafaxine compared with placebo (all P < or = .002). Significantly more desvenlafaxine-treated subjects than placebo-treated subjects discontinued because of adverse events during week 1 only. CONCLUSION: Desvenlafaxine is an effective treatment for menopausal HFs.

Desvenlafaxine: application withdrawal. Desvenlafaxine: withdrawal of marketing application for depression also.

A welcome move! This psychoactive agent has an unfavourable risk-benefit balance in both hot flushes and depression.

Solriamfetol: First Global Approval.

Solriamfetol (Sunosi™) is an orally active, selective dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor that was recently approved in the USA as a treatment for excessive daytime sleepiness (hypersomnia) associated with narcolepsy and obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). Norepinephrine and dopamine influence various physiologic functions, including sleep-wake regulation, and excessive sleepiness has been linked with dysregulation of dopaminergic and norepinephrine systems. This article summarizes the milestones in the development of solriamfetol leading to this first approval as a treatment for excessive daytime sleepiness associated with narcolepsy and OSA.

BDNF mediates the protective effects of scopolamine in reserpine-induced depression-like behaviors via up-regulation of 5-HTT and TPH1.

Reserpine treatment in rodents has been shown to induce depression-like behaviors that mimic monoamine dysfunction implicated in the development of depression. Herein, we aimed to demonstrate the antidepressant-like activities of scopolamine, the muscarinic receptor antagonist, in a reserpine-induced mouse model. Mice were injected with 1.5 mg/kg (i.p.) of reserpine for 10 days, and the depression-like state was confirmed via the open field test (OFT) and forced swimming test (FST). Then, the mice were treated with scopolamine (25 µg/kg, i.p.) or saline for 3 days. Ten days of reserpine treatment resulted in a significant decrease in locomotor activity and an increase in immobility time in the OFT and FST, respectively, indicating that ten days of reserpine administration significantly induced depression-like behaviors in mice. However, scopolamine rapidly ameliorated the increase in immobility time in the FST and had no effect on locomotor activity in the OFT. In addition, the reserpine-induced decreases in serotonin transporter (5-HTT), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1) in mouse hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC) were significantly reversed by scopolamine. Our study provides evidence that scopolamine rapidly attenuates reserpine-induced depression in mice partially by regulating 5-HTT, BDNF and TPH1 in the hippocampus and PFC of mice.

Efficacy and tolerability of desvenlafaxine succinate treatment for menopausal vasomotor symptoms: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To compare efficacy and safety of desvenlafaxine succinate (desvenlafaxine) with placebo for the treatment of vasomotor symptoms. METHODS: This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial enrolled 707 healthy, postmenopausal women experiencing 50 or more moderate-to-severe hot flushes per week. Participants randomly received desvenlafaxine 50, 100, 150, or 200 mg or placebo daily. Trial duration was 52 weeks. Primary outcomes were change from baseline in average daily number of moderate-to-severe hot flushes and in daily hot flush severity score at weeks 4 and 12. RESULTS: Six hundred twenty women with an average of 11 moderate-to-severe hot flushes per day at baseline completed at least one on-therapy evaluation for primary efficacy end points; 519 participants completed 12 weeks of treatment, and 368 completed the study. Desvenlafaxine 100 mg/d achieved a significantly greater reduction compared with placebo in average daily number of hot flushes at weeks 4 (P=.013) and 12 (P=.005), reaching a 64% decrease from baseline at week 12, and the 75% responder rate was significantly higher for desvenlafaxine 100 mg (50%) compared with placebo (29%; P=.003; number needed to treat=4.7) at week 12. Average daily severity of hot flushes was significantly lower in the desvenlafaxine 100-mg group compared with placebo at week 12 (P=.020). Desvenlafaxine-treated women reported significantly more treatment-emergent adverse events than placebo-treated women during the first week of therapy only. CONCLUSION: Desvenlafaxine is an effective nonhormonal treatment for vasomotor symptoms in postmenopausal women. Its tolerability profile is consistent with that of other serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, www.clinicaltrials.gov, NCT00421031 LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: I.

Examining quality of life in patients with generalized anxiety disorder: clinical relevance and response to duloxetine treatment.

BACKGROUND: Duloxetine, a serotonergic noradrenergic reuptake inhibitor, improved functional outcomes in each of three clinical studies for the treatment of adults with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Using comparison norms, the current work describes the clinical relevance of these functional improvements in terms of return to normative functioning and symptom remission. METHODS: Data were pooled at the individual patient level from three double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of duloxetine treatment (9-10 weeks acute therapy, dose ranges 60-120mg). Inclusion/exclusion criteria were consistent across studies, and outcome measures included the Sheehan Disability Scale (SDS), Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire Short Form (Q-LES-Q-SF), and European Quality of Life 5 Dimensions (EQ-5D). RESULTS: Adult patients (mean age=42.4 years; 65% women) were randomly assigned to duloxetine (N=668) or placebo (N=495). At baseline, the majority of patients were impaired on the SDS global functioning (89%), Q-LES-Q-SF maximum percent (95%), and EQ-5D (76%) scores. On each measure, a greater percentage of duloxetine-treated patients converted from an impaired baseline to a normative endpoint score than did placebo-treated patients (p0.001, all comparisons). Remission defined as a HAMA total score at endpoint of 10, compared with 7, captured a greater proportion of patients who were functionally in remission. CONCLUSIONS: GAD is associated with substantial impairment in functioning and subjective well-being, and patients treated with duloxetine 60-120mg/day, compared with placebo, experienced a greater return to normative functioning. Attention to role functioning and quality of life may refine our definition of remission when using standard symptom measures of anxiety.