Prophylactic TNF blockade uncouples efficacy and toxicity in dual CTLA-4 and PD-1 immunotherapy.

Combined PD-1 and CTLA-4-targeted immunotherapy with nivolumab and ipilimumab is effective against melanoma, renal cell carcinoma and non-small-cell lung cancer1-3. However, this comes at the cost of frequent, serious immune-related adverse events, necessitating a reduction in the recommended dose of ipilimumab that is given to patients4. In mice, co-treatment with surrogate anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibodies is effective in transplantable cancer models, but also exacerbates autoimmune colitis. Here we show that treating mice with clinically available TNF inhibitors concomitantly with combined CTLA-4 and PD-1 immunotherapy ameliorates colitis and, in addition, improves anti-tumour efficacy. Notably, TNF is upregulated in the intestine of patients suffering from colitis after dual ipilimumab and nivolumab treatment. We created a model in which Rag2-/-Il2rg-/- mice were adoptively transferred with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, causing graft-versus-host disease that was further exacerbated by ipilimumab and nivolumab treatment. When human colon cancer cells were xenografted into these mice, prophylactic blockade of human TNF improved colitis and hepatitis in xenografted mice, and moreover, immunotherapeutic control of xenografted tumours was retained. Our results provide clinically feasible strategies to dissociate efficacy and toxicity in the use of combined immune checkpoint blockade for cancer immunotherapy.

Targeting AQP9 enhanced the anti-TNF therapy response in Crohn's disease by inhibiting LPA-hippo pathway.

Although anti-TNF antibodies are extensively used to treat Crohn's disease (CD), a significant proportion of patients, up to 40%, exhibit an inadequate response to this therapy. Our objective was to identify potential targets that could improve the effectiveness of anti-TNF therapy in CD. Through the integration and analysis of transcriptomic data from various CD databases, we found that the expression of AQP9 was significantly increased in anti-TNF therapy-resistant specimens. The response to anti-TNF therapy in the CD mouse model was significantly enhanced by specifically inhibiting AQP9. Further experiments found that the blockade of AQP9, which is dominantly expressed in macrophages, decreased inflamed macrophage functions and cytokine expression. Mechanistic studies revealed that AQP9 transported glycerol into macrophages, where it was metabolized to LPA, which was further metabolized to LPA, resulting in the activation of the LPAR2 receptor and downstream hippo pathway, finally promoting the expression of cytokines, especially IL23 and IL1ß⊡ Taken together, the expansion of AQP9+ macrophages is associated with resistance to anti-TNF therapy in Crohn's disease. These findings indicated that AQP9 could be a potential target for enhancing anti-TNF therapy in Crohn's disease.

TNF or EGFR inhibition equally block AKI-to-CKD transition: opportunities for etanercept treatment.

BACKGROUND: Inflammation is a key driver of the transition of acute kidney injury to progressive fibrosis and chronic kidney disease (AKI-to-CKD transition). Blocking a-disintegrin-and-metalloprotease-17 (ADAM17)-dependent ectodomain shedding, in particular of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) ligands and of the type 1 inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF), reduces pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic responses after ischemic AKI or unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO), a classical fibrosis model. Metalloprotease or EGFR inhibition show significant undesirable side effects in humans. In retrospective studies anti-TNF biologics reduce the incidence and progression of CKD in humans. Whether TNF has a role in AKI-to-CKD transition and how TNF inhibition compares to EGFR inhibition is largely unknown. METHODS: Mice were subjected to bilateral renal ischemia-reperfusion injury or unilateral ureteral obstruction. Kidneys were analyzed by histology, immunohistochemistry, qPCR, western blot, mass cytometry, scRNA sequencing, and cytokine profiling. RESULTS: Here we show that TNF or EGFR inhibition reduce AKI-to-CKD transition and fibrosis equally by about 25%, while combination has no additional effect. EGFR inhibition reduced kidney TNF expression by about 50% largely by reducing accumulation of TNF expressing immune cells in the kidney early after AKI, while TNF inhibition did not affect EGFR activation or immune cell accumulation. Using scRNAseq data we show that TNF is predominantly expressed by immune cells in AKI but not in proximal tubule cells (PTC), and PTC-TNF knockout did not affect AKI-to-CKD transition in UUO. Thus, the anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects of the anti-TNF biologic etanercept in AKI-to-CKD transition rely on blocking TNF that is released from immune cells recruited or accumulating in response to PTC-EGFR signals. CONCLUSION: Short-term anti-TNF biologics during or after AKI could be helpful in the prevention of AKI-to-CKD transition.

Synovial monocytes from psoriatic and rheumatoid arthritis patients are modulated differently by TNF inhibitors and glucocorticoids: an ex-vivo study.

OBJECTIVES: Synovial monocytes (expressing CD14+CD16+) affect pro-inflammatory responses in the synovium microenvironment of psoriatic arthritis (PsA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The effect of various drugs on those cells was evaluated. METHODS: Synovial fluid mononuclear cells (SFMCs) from PsA (n=29) and RA (n=11) patients were cultured with biologics or glucocorticoids (GCs). CD14+CD16+ cells were analysed by flow cytometry. TNF secretion was assessed by ELISA and changes in cytokine and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) mRNA by qPCR. RESULTS: TNF inhibitors (i) [adalimumab (ADA) and infliximab (IFX)] significantly reduced the %CD14+CD16+ cells (p<0.04 and p<0.02, respectively) compared to IL-17Ai, IL-12/23i, and GCs in PsA patients' SFMCs. Similarly, those TNFi reduced the %CD14+CD16+ cells (p<0.05 and p<0.02, respectively) compared to IL-6Ri, CD20i and GCs in RA patients' SFMCs. TNFi (ADA p<0.01, IFX p=0.0003), and GCs (p<0.05) reduced TNF levels in PsA patients SFMCs supernatants. IFX down-regulated IL-1ß mRNA (p<0.005) while GCs betamethasone (BET) (p<0.01) and methylprednisolone acetate (MPA) (p<0.005) led to IL-1ß up-regulation. IFX down-regulated IL-8 and MMP-9 (p<0.01) and up-regulated IL-10 (p<0.005), and GCs did so to a greater extent (for IL-8, BET p<0.0001 and MPA p<0.005, for MMP-9, BET and MPA p<0.0001 and for IL-10, BET and MPA p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: TNFi but not GCs reduced the inflammatory monocytes. Both TNFi and GCs inhibited TNF secretion but differently modulated IL-1ß, IL-8, MMP-9 and IL-10 gene expression. Our data point to TNFi as a modulator of synovial monocytes.

Size Matters! Anti-HBs Titer and HBV Reactivation During Anti-TNF Therapy.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: We and others have previously described that hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) seems to protect against clinically significant HBV reactivation in cohort studies of patients undergoing anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) therapy. However, there were too few cases of HBV reactivation within cohort studies to assess the role of anti-HBs titer on reactivation. The purpose of this study was to systematically review the correlation between anti-HBs titer and the degree of clinically relevant HBV reactivation in patients undergoing anti-TNF therapy. METHODS AND RESULTS: We systemically reviewed all studies discussing anti-TNF therapy in patients with resolved HBV infection, defined as hepatitis surface antigen (HBsAg) negative and hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBc) positive. We identified a total of 48 cases of reactivation from 5 cohort studies and 10 case reports or case series; 21 were anti-HBs negative, 7 were only reported as anti-HBs positive, 16 were anti-HBs positive with titer below 100, and 4 were anti-HBs positive with titer above 100. HBsAg sero-reversion was dominantly seen in patients with negative, low and/or declining anti-HBs titers. There was a significant trend toward less clinically relevant form of reactivation with increase in baseline anti-HBs titer (p = 0.022). CONCLUSION: Anti-HBs titers greater than 100 iU/L protect against clinically relevant HBV reactivation, while patients with low anti-HBs titers or negative anti-HBs had more clinically relevant HBV reactivation and higher rates of HBsAg sero-reversion. This suggests the importance of baseline quantitative anti-HBs prior to starting anti-TNF therapy and consideration vaccination for boosting anti-HBs titers prior to and/or during therapy.

Anti-TNF treatment corrects IFN-γ-dependent proinflammatory signatures in Blau syndrome patient-derived macrophages.

BACKGROUND: Blau syndrome (BS) is an autoinflammatory disease associated with mutations in nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2. Although treatments with anti-TNF agents have been reported to be effective, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to elucidate the mechanisms of autoinflammation in patients with BS and to clarify how anti-TNF treatment controls the disease phenotype at the cellular level in clinical samples. METHODS: Macrophages were differentiated from monocytes of 7 BS patients, and global transcriptional profiles of 5 patients were analyzed with or without IFN-γ stimulation. Macrophages were also generated from BS-specific induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and their transcriptome was examined for comparison. RESULTS: Aberrant inflammatory responses were observed upon IFN-γ stimulation in macrophages from untreated BS patients, but not in those from patients treated with anti-TNF. iPSC-derived macrophages carrying a disease-associated mutation also showed IFN-γ-dependent accelerated inflammatory responses. Comparisons of peripheral blood- and iPSC-derived macrophages revealed the upregulation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) targets in unstimulated macrophages as a common feature. CONCLUSIONS: IFN-γ stimulation is one of the key signals driving aberrant inflammatory responses in BS-associated macrophages. However, long-term treatment with anti-TNF agents ameliorates such abnormalities even in the presence of IFN-γ stimulation. Our data thus suggest that preexposure to TNF or functionally similar cytokines inducing NF-κB-driven proinflammatory signaling during macrophage development is a prerequisite for accelerated inflammatory responses upon IFN-γ stimulation in BS.

Long Non-Coding RNA Signatures in the Ileum and Colon of Crohn's Disease Patients and Effect of Anti-TNF-α Treatment on Their Modulation.

Biological therapies only benefit one-third of patients with Crohn's disease (CD). For this reason, a deeper understanding of the mechanisms by which biologics elicit their effect on intestinal mucosa is needed. Increasing evidence points toward the involvement of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the pathogenesis of CD, although their role remains poorly studied. We aimed to characterize lncRNA profiles in the ileum and colon from CD patients and evaluate the effect of anti-TNF-α treatment on their transcription. Terminal ileum and left colon samples from 30 patients (active CD = 10, quiescent CD = 10, and healthy controls (HCs) = 10) were collected for RNA-seq. The patients were classified according to endoscopic activity. Furthermore, biopsies were cultured with infliximab, and their transcriptome was determined by Illumina gene expression array. A total of 678 differentially expressed lncRNAs between the terminal ileum and left colon were identified in HCs, 438 in patients with quiescent CD, and 468 in patients with active CD. Additionally, we identified three new lncRNAs in the ileum associated with CD activity. No differences were observed when comparing the effect of infliximab according to intestinal location, presence of disease (CD vs. HC), and activity (active vs. quiescent). The expression profiles of lncRNAs are associated with the location of intestinal tissue, being very different in the ileum and colon. The presence of CD and disease activity are associated with the differential expression of lncRNAs. No modulatory effect of infliximab has been observed in the lncRNA transcriptome.

Synergistic upregulation of ADAMTS4 (aggrecanase-1) by cytokines and its suppression in knee osteoarthritic synovial fibroblasts.

The ADAMTS (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs) family includes nine members with aggrecan-degrading activity, i.e., ADAMTS1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, and 20. However, their systematic expression profile in knee osteoarthritis (OA) synovium and effects of cytokines and growth factors on the expression in OA synovial fibroblasts remain elusive. In this study, expression of all nine aggrecanolytic ADAMTS species was assessed by quantitative real-time PCR in OA and control normal synovial tissues. OA synovial fibroblasts were treated with interleukin-1α (IL-1α), IL-1ß, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß), vascular endothelial growth factor165, and heparin-binding epidermal growth factor, and analyzed for the expression of the ADAMTS species. The signaling pathways and inhibition of ADAMTS4 expression by high-molecular-weight hyaluronan, adalimumab, tocilizumab, and signaling molecule inhibitors were studied. ADAMTS1, 4, 5, 9, and 16 were expressed in OA synovium, but only ADAMTS4 expression was significantly higher in OA as compared to normal synovium. IL-1α, TNF-α, and TGF-ß markedly increased ADAMTS4 expression, while their effects were minimal for the other ADAMTS species. ADAMTS4 was synergistically upregulated by treatment with IL-1α and TNF-α, IL-1α and TGF-ß, or IL-1α, TNF-α and TGF-ß. The signaling molecules' inhibitors demonstrated that IL-1α-induced ADAMTS4 expression is predominantly through TGF-ß-associated kinase 1 (TAK1), and the TNF-α-stimulated expression is via TAK1 and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). The TGF-ß-promoted expression was through the activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5)/Smad2/3, TAK1, and non-TAK1 pathways. Adalimumab blocked TNF-α-stimulated expression. ADAMTS4 expression co-stimulated with IL-1α, TNF-α and TGF-ß was abolished by treatment with adalimumab, TAK1 inhibitor, and ALK5/Smad2/3 inhibitor. These data demonstrate marked and synergistic upregulation of ADAMTS4 by IL-1α, TNF-α and TGF-ß in OA synovial fibroblasts, and suggest that concurrent therapy with an anti-TNF-α drug and inhibitor(s) may be useful for prevention against aggrecan degradation in OA.

TNF-α antagonists differentially induce TGF-ß1-dependent resuscitation of dormant-like Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

TNF-α- as well as non-TNF-α-targeting biologics are prescribed to treat a variety of immune-mediated inflammatory disorders. The well-documented risk of tuberculosis progression associated with anti-TNF-α treatment highlighted the central role of TNF-α for the maintenance of protective immunity, although the rate of tuberculosis detected among patients varies with the nature of the drug. Using a human, in-vitro granuloma model, we reproduce the increased reactivation rate of tuberculosis following exposure to Adalimumab compared to Etanercept, two TNF-α-neutralizing biologics. We show that Adalimumab, because of its bivalence, specifically induces TGF-ß1-dependent Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) resuscitation which can be prevented by concomitant TGF-ß1 neutralization. Moreover, our data suggest an additional role of lymphotoxin-α-neutralized by Etanercept but not Adalimumab-in the control of latent tuberculosis infection. Furthermore, we show that, while Secukinumab, an anti-IL-17A antibody, does not revert Mtb dormancy, the anti-IL-12-p40 antibody Ustekinumab and the recombinant IL-1RA Anakinra promote Mtb resuscitation, in line with the importance of these pathways in tuberculosis immunity.

Blocking TNF signaling may save lives in COVID-19 infection.

Global vaccination effort and better understanding of treatment strategies provided a ray of hope for improvement in COVID-19 pandemic, however, in many countries, the disease continues to collect its death toll. The major pathogenic mechanism behind severe cases associated with high mortality is the burst of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF, IL-6, IFNγ and others, resulting in multiple organ failure. Although the exact contribution of each cytokine is not clear, we provide an evidence that the central mediator of cytokine storm and its devastating consequences may be TNF. This cytokine is known to be involved in activated blood clotting, lung damage, insulin resistance, heart failure, and other conditions. A number of currently available pharmaceutical agents such as monoclonal antibodies and soluble TNF receptors can effectively prevent TNF from binding to its receptor(s). Other drugs are known to block NFkB, the major signal transducer molecule used in TNF signaling, or to block kinases involved in downstream activation cascades. Some of these medicines have already been selected for clinical trials, but more work is needed. A simple, rapid, and inexpensive method of directly monitoring TNF levels may be a valuable tool for a timely selection of COVID-19 patients for anti-TNF therapy.

Hyperactive neutrophil chemotaxis contributes to anti-tumor necrosis factor-α treatment resistance in inflammatory bowel disease.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Anti-tumor necrosis factor-α (anti-TNF-α) agents have been used for inflammatory bowel disease; however, it has up to 30% nonresponse rate. Identifying molecular pathways and finding reliable diagnostic biomarkers for patient response to anti-TNF-α treatment are needed. METHODS: Publicly available transcriptomic data from inflammatory bowel disease patients receiving anti-TNF-α therapy were systemically collected and integrated. In silico flow cytometry approaches and Metascape were applied to evaluate immune cell populations and to perform gene enrichment analysis, respectively. Genes identified within enrichment pathways validated in neutrophils were tracked in an anti-TNF-α-treated animal model (with lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation). The receiver operating characteristic curve was applied to all genes to identify the best prediction biomarkers. RESULTS: A total of 449 samples were retrieved from control, baseline, and after primary anti-TNF-α therapy or placebo. No statistically significant differences were observed between anti-TNF-α treatment responders and nonresponders at baseline in immune microenvironment scores. Neutrophil, endothelial cell, and B-cell populations were higher in baseline nonresponders, and chemotaxis pathways may contribute to the treatment resistance. Genes related to chemotaxis pathways were significantly upregulated in lipopolysaccharide-induced neutrophils, but no statistically significant changes were observed in neutrophils treated with anti-TNF-α. Interleukin 13 receptor subunit alpha 2 (IL13RA2) is the best predictor (receiver operating characteristic curve: 80.7%, 95% confidence interval: 73.8-87.5%), with a sensitivity of 68.13% and specificity of 84.93%, and significantly higher in nonresponders compared with responders (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Hyperactive neutrophil chemotaxis influences responses to anti-TNF-α treatment, and IL13RA2 is a potential biomarker to predict anti-TNF-α treatment response.

Interferon-related gene expression in response to TNF inhibitor treatment in ankylosing spondylitis patients: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory arthritis primarily affecting the spine and sacroiliac joints. TNF inhibitor (TNFi) drugs are recommended for patients not responding to NSAIDs; however, there is a significant need for biomarkers of response. IFN-regulated genes (IRGs) and other cytokines/chemokines are linked to autoimmune diseases and have been associated with treatment response. Our objective was to explore whether IRGs and cytokines/chemokines can be associated with response to TNFiagents in AS. METHODS: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were obtained from 26 AS patients who were to receive a TNFi (I, n = 15) or placebo (P, n = 11) at week 0 and week 22. Response (R)/non-response (NR) was defined as reduction in ASDAS ≥ 1.2 points or reduction in sacroiliac/vertebral MRI lesions. The expression of 96 genes was quantified using TaqMan assays. Finally, ELISA was used to measure IL-6 in serum samples from another 38 AS patients. RESULTS: Analysis of gene expression in 26 baseline samples segregated patients into four groups defined by a signature of 15 genes (mainly IRGs). ASDAS response was associated with one group independently of treatment received. We then analysed response to the TNFi (n = 15) and identified a 12-gene signature associated with MRI response. A third IRG signature was also associated with a reduction in IRGs expression post-TNFi samples (n = 10 pairs). Finally, decreased circulating IL-6 was associated with BASDAI-R. CONCLUSION: This pilot study suggests an association between IRG expression and response to TNFi in AS. These findings require validation in a larger cohort in order to construct predictive algorithms for patient stratification.

US rheumatologists' beliefs and knowledge about biosimilars: a survey.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to evaluate perceptions of biosimilar products among US rheumatologists who prescribe TNF-α inhibitors, given that 10 TNF-α inhibitor biosimilars and two rituximab biosimilars have Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. METHODS: A 19-question self-administered online survey was conducted from 6 May to 1 June 2019, and fielded by WebMD, LLC. Rheumatologists (n = 9050) who were members of Medscape.com and its partner panels were invited to participate. Likert and other rating scales were used to collect responses, which were summarized descriptively. RESULTS: Responses were obtained from 320 board-certified US rheumatologists, 85% of whom were fellows of the ACR. Nearly all respondents were familiar with the FDA definition of a biosimilar product and were aware that an infliximab biosimilar was FDA approved; fewer realized that adalimumab, etanercept and rituximab biosimilars were also FDA approved. Most respondents (84%) were aware that an approved biosimilar was not automatically deemed interchangeable by the FDA. Rheumatologists were more likely to initiate biosimilar treatment for a biologic treatment-naïve patient with RA (73%) than they were to switch to the biosimilar for a patient with RA doing well on the reference product (35%). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this survey suggest that US rheumatologists have a good understanding and acceptance of biosimilar products, particularly for the initiation of treatment in biologic-naïve individuals. They were hesitant to switch from a reference product to a biosimilar for a patient doing well on the reference product. Additional education on biosimilars is required to help inform treatment decisions by rheumatologists. A plain language summary of this article has been uploaded as supplementary material, available at Rheumatology online.

Pathological role of activated mTOR in CXCR3+ memory B cells of rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVES: B cells play an important pathological role in RA. In this study, we investigated the role of metabolic regulator mTOR in B cells and its relevance to the pathology of RA. METHODS: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from 31 normal subjects and 86 RA patients and the gated B cells were assessed for mTOR phosphorylation and chemokine receptor expression. In vitro studies on peripheral blood B cells isolated from the control and RA patients investigated the molecular mechanisms. RESULTS: Higher concentrations of CXCL10 (CXCR3 ligands) and lower percentages of CXCR3+ memory B cells were present in the peripheral blood of RA patients relative to the control. RA patients with high CXCL10 concentrations had smaller percentage of CXCR3+ memory B cells and high disease activity. One-year treatment with TNF inhibitors increased the percentage of CXCR3+ memory B cells and reduced serum CXCL10 concentrations. mTOR phosphorylation in B cells was further enhanced in RA patients, compared with the control, and was selectively enhanced in CXCR3+ memory B cells. mTOR phosphorylation in CXCR3+ memory B cells correlated with disease activity. In vitro, mTOR phosphorylation in B cells enhanced IL-6 production and increased RANKL expression. CONCLUSION: mTOR activation in CXCR3+ memory B cells of RA patients is associated with disease activity, mediated through IL-6 production and RANKL expression. The obtained results also suggest that TNF inhibitors mediate an impact on the association between CXCL10 and mTOR activated CXCR3+ memory B cells.

TNFα inhibitors reduce bone loss in rheumatoid arthritis independent of clinical response by reducing osteoclast precursors and IL-20.

OBJECTIVES: About half of RA patients treated with TNFα inhibitors either do not respond or lose their initial therapeutic response over time. The clinical response is measured by reduction in DAS28, which primarily reflects inflammation. However, other effects of TNFα inhibitors, such as impact on bone erosion, are not assessed by DAS28. We aimed to examine the effect of TNFα inhibitors on bone density, bone biomarkers and cytokine production in responder and non-responder patients and assessed mechanisms of action. METHODS: BMD in the lumbar spine and femur neck of 117 RA patients was measured by DEXA scan. Bone turnover biomarkers CTX, osteoprotegerin (OPG), osteocalcin and RANKL were measured by ELISA. Levels of 16 cytokines in plasma and in tissue culture supernatants of ex vivo T cells were measured by multiplex assays and ELISA. The effect of treatment with TNFα inhibitors on blood mononuclear cell (MNC) differentiation to osteoclast precursors (OCP) was measured flow cytometry and microscopy. RESULTS: TNFα inhibitors improved lumbar spine BMD but had modest effects on blood bone biomarkers, irrespective of patients' clinical response. Blood OCP numbers and the ability of monocytes to differentiate to OCP in vitro declined after treatment. Treatment also reduced RANK expression and IL-20 production. BMD improvement correlated with reduced levels of IL-20 in responder patients. CONCLUSION: This study reveals that TNFα inhibitors reduce lumbar spine bone loss in RA patients irrespective of changes in DAS28. The reduction in bone loss is associated with reduction in IL-20 levels in responder patients.

TNF-α antagonism rescues the effect of ageing on stroke: Perspectives for targeting inflamm-ageing.

AIMS: Epidemiologic evidence links ischemic stroke to age, yet the mechanisms that underlie the specific and independent effects of age on stroke remain elusive, impeding the development of targeted treatments. This study tested the hypothesis that age directly aggravates stroke outcomes and proposes inflamm-aging as a mediator and potential therapeutic target. METHODS: 3 months- (young) and 18-20 months-old (old) mice underwent transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) for 30 minutes followed by 48 hours of reperfusion. Old animals received weekly treatment with the TNF-α neutralizing antibody adalimumab over 4 weeks before tMCAO in a separate set of experiments. Plasma levels of TNF- α were assessed in patients with ischemic stroke and correlated with age and outcome. RESULTS: Old mice displayed larger stroke size than young ones with increased neuromotor deficit. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed impairment of the blood-brain barrier in old mice, i.e. increased post-stroke degradation of endothelial tight junctions and expression of tight junctions-digesting and neurotoxic matrix metalloproteinases. At baseline, old animals showed a broad modulation of several circulating inflammatory mediators. TNF-α displayed the highest increase in old animals and its inhibition restored the volume of stroke, neuromotor performance, and survival rates of old mice to the levels observed in young ones. Patients with ischemic stroke showed increased TNF-α plasma levels which correlated with worsened short-term neurological outcome as well as with age. CONCLUSIONS: This study identifies TNF-α as a causative contributor to the deleterious effect of aging on stroke and points to inflamm-aging as a mechanism of age-related worsening of stroke outcomes and potential therapeutic target in this context. Thus, this work provides a basis for tailoring novel stroke therapies for the particularly vulnerable elderly population.

Myeloid cell dynamics in bleomycin-induced pulmonary injury in mice; effects of anti-TNFα antibody.

Bleomycin is a cancer therapeutic known to cause lung injury which progresses to fibrosis. Evidence suggests that macrophages contribute to this pathological response. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α is a macrophage-derived pro-inflammatory cytokine implicated in lung injury. Herein, we investigated the role of TNFα in macrophage responses to bleomycin. Treatment of mice with bleomycin (3 U/kg, i.t.) caused histopathological changes in the lung within 3 d which culminated in fibrosis at 21 d. This was accompanied by an early (3-7 d) influx of CD11b+ and iNOS+ macrophages into the lung, and Arg-1+ macrophages at 21 d. At this time, epithelial cell dysfunction, defined by increases in total phospholipids and SP-B was evident. Treatment of mice with anti-TNFα antibody (7.5 mg/kg, i.v.) beginning 15-30 min after bleomycin, and every 5 d thereafter reduced the number and size of fibrotic foci and restored epithelial cell function. Flow cytometric analysis of F4/80+ alveolar macrophages (AM) isolated by bronchoalveolar lavage and interstitial macrophages (IM) by tissue digestion identified resident (CD11b-CD11c+) and immature infiltrating (CD11b+CD11c-) AM, and mature (CD11b+CD11c+) and immature (CD11b+CD11c-) IM subsets in bleomycin treated mice. Greater numbers of mature (CD11c+) infiltrating (CD11b+) AM expressing the anti-inflammatory marker, mannose receptor (CD206) were observed at 21 d when compared to 7 d post bleomycin. Mature proinflammatory (Ly6C+) IM were greater at 7 d relative to 21 d. These cells transitioned into mature anti-inflammatory/pro-fibrotic (CD206+) IM between 7 and 21 d. Anti-TNFα antibody heightened the number of CD11b+ AM in the lung without altering their activation state. Conversely, it reduced the abundance of mature proinflammatory (Ly6C+) IM in the tissue at 7 d and immature pro-fibrotic IM at 21 d. Taken together, these data suggest that TNFα inhibition has beneficial effects in bleomycin induced injury, restoring epithelial function and reducing numbers of profibrotic IM and the extent of pulmonary fibrosis.

SASP-induced macrophage dysfunction may contribute to accelerated senescent fibroblast accumulation in the dermis.

Recently, increasing attention has been paid to senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), a phenomenon that senescent cells secrete molecules such as inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), due to its noxious effects on the surrounding tissue. Senescent cells in the blood and liver are known to be properly depleted by macrophages. In the dermis, accumulation of senescent cells has been reported and is thought to be involved with skin ageing. In this study, to elucidate the clearance mechanism of senescent cells in the dermis, we focused on macrophage functions. Our co-culture experiments of senescent fibroblasts and macrophages revealed a two-step clearance mechanism: first, TNF-α secreted from macrophages induces apoptosis in senescent fibroblasts, and then, dead cells are phagocytosed by macrophages. Furthermore, it was suggested that SASP factors suppress both of the two steps of the senescent cell clearance by macrophages. From these findings, normally senescent cells in the dermis are thought to be removed by macrophages, but when senescent cells are excessively accumulated owing to oxidative stress, ultraviolet (UV) ray or other reasons, SASP was suggested to suppress the macrophage-dependent clearance functions and thereby cause further accumulation of senescent cells.

How could nanobiotechnology improve treatment outcomes of anti-TNF-α therapy in inflammatory bowel disease? Current knowledge, future directions.

Despite significant advances in therapeutic possibilities for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in recent years, there is still a big room for improvement. In particular, biological treatment can induce not only clinical remission but also mucosal healing of the gastrointestinal tract. Among these therapeutic molecules, anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha (anti-TNF-α) antibodies were the first to revolutionize treatment algorithms in IBD. However, due to the parenteral route of administration and systemic mode of action, TNF-α blockers are characterised by high rates of immunogenicity-related loss of response and serious adverse events. Moreover, intravenous or subcutaneous therapy is not considered patient-friendly and requires occasional, direct contact with healthcare centres. To overcome these limitations, several attempts have been made to design oral pharmaceutical formulations of these molecules. It is hypothesized that oral anti-TNF-α antibodies therapy can directly provide a targeted and potent anti-inflammatory effect in the inflamed gastrointestinal tissues without significant systemic exposure, improving long-term treatment outcomes and safety. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge and future perspectives regarding different approaches made towards entering a new era of oral anti-TNF-α therapy, namely, the tailoring of biocompatible nanoparticles with anti-TNF-α antibodies for site-specific targeting to IBD. In particular, we discuss the latest concepts applying the achievements of nanotechnology-based drug design in this area.

Synergistic Signaling of TLR and IFNα/ß Facilitates Escape of IL-18 Expression from Endotoxin Tolerance.

Rationale: IL-18 is a member of the IL-1 cytokine family, and elevated blood IL-18 concentrations associate with disease activity in macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) and poor clinical outcomes in severe inflammatory and septic conditions.Objectives: Although recent investigations provide mechanistic evidence for a contribution of IL-18 to inflammation and hyperinflammation in sepsis and MAS, we sought to study regulatory mechanisms underlying human IL-18 expression.Methods: Samples from in vivo and in vitro endotoxin rechallenge experiments, patients with inflammatory disease, and isolated human monocytes treated with various stimulants and drugs were tested for cytokine gene and protein expression. Serum IL-18 expression with or without JAK/STAT inhibition was analyzed in two MAS mouse models and in a patient with recurrent MAS.Measurements and Main Results: Peripheral blood and monocytic IL-18 expression escaped LPS-induced immunoparalysis. LPS-stimulated primary human monocytes revealed specific IL-18 expression kinetics controlled by IFNα/ß signaling. JAK/STAT inhibition or IFNß neutralization during LPS stimulation blunted cytokine expression. Similarly, microtubule-destabilizing drugs abrogated LPS-induced IL18 expression, but this effect could be fully reversed by addition of IFNα/ß. Ex vivo analysis of inflammatory disease patients' whole blood revealed strong correlation of type I IFN score and IL18 expression, whereas JAK/STAT inhibition strongly reduced IL-18 serum levels in two MAS mouse models and in a patient with recurrent MAS.Conclusions: Our data indicate that IL-18 (but not IL-1ß) production from human monocytes requires cooperative Toll-like receptor and IFNα/ß signaling. Interference with IFNα/ß expression or signaling following JAK/STAT inhibition may control catastrophic hyperinflammation in MAS.