Beyond the Tricks: The Science and Comparative Cognition of Magic.

Magic is an art form that has fascinated humans for centuries. Recently, the techniques used by magicians to make their audience experience the impossible have attracted the attention of psychologists, who, in just a couple of decades, have produced a large amount of research regarding how these effects operate, focusing on the blind spots in perception and roadblocks in cognition that magic techniques exploit. Most recently, this investigation has given a pathway to a new line of research that uses magic effects to explore the cognitive abilities of nonhuman animals. This new branch of the scientific study of magic has already yielded new evidence illustrating the power of magic effects as a psychological tool for nonhuman animals. This review aims to give a thorough overview of the research on both the human and nonhuman perception of magic effects by critically illustrating the most prominent works of both fields of inquiry.

Exploring the perceptual inabilities of Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius) using magic effects.

In recent years, scientists have begun to use magic effects to investigate the blind spots in our attention and perception [G. Kuhn, Experiencing the Impossible: The Science of Magic (2019); S. Macknik, S. Martinez-Conde, S. Blakeslee, Sleights of Mind: What the Neuroscience of Magic Reveals about Our Everyday Deceptions (2010)]. Recently, we suggested that similar techniques could be transferred to nonhuman animal observers and that such an endeavor would provide insight into the inherent commonalities and discrepancies in attention and perception in human and nonhuman animals [E. Garcia-Pelegrin, A. K. Schnell, C. Wilkins, N. S. Clayton, Science 369, 1424-1426 (2020)]. Here, we performed three different magic effects (palming, French drop, and fast pass) to a sample of six Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius). These magic effects were specifically chosen as they utilize different cues and expectations that mislead the spectator into thinking one object has or has not been transferred from one hand to the other. Results from palming and French drop experiments suggest that Eurasian jays have different expectations from humans when observing some of these effects. Specifically, Eurasian jays were not deceived by effects that required them to expect an object to move between hands when observing human hand manipulations. However, similar to humans, Eurasian jays were misled by magic effects that utilize fast movements as a deceptive action. This study investigates how another taxon perceives the magician's techniques of deception that commonly deceive humans.

Magical thinking: Its effect on emergency medical care.

Magical thinking is a cognitive process characterized by beliefs in supernatural causality and the power of rituals. Grounded in personal convictions rather than objective reality, it involves subjective beliefs rather than magic tricks. Magical thinking's effects range from potentially positive, such as bringing hope and comfort, to negative consequences, including delays in seeking appropriate medical care and refusing evidence-based treatments. This article provides an overview of magical thinking, including its prevalence, diverse forms, and influence on patients, families, and emergency physicians (EPs). This article offers guidelines for recognizing signs of magical thinking and emphasizes the importance of respectful and empathetic interactions with patients and their families. Highlighting both the benefits and detriments of magical thinking in Emergency Medical (EM) care, the article discusses the knowledge and tools needed to optimize patient outcomes. It acknowledges the varying belief systems and cultural practices that contribute to the prevalence of magical thinking. For physicians and other EM professionals, addressing magical thinking requires cultural competence and empathetic engagement. Active listening and shared decision-making are essential to promote positive patient outcomes. By recognizing and understanding magical thinking and fostering effective communication, EPs can navigate the delicate balance of addressing patients' beliefs while delivering evidence-based care.

The ritual stance does not apply to magic in general.

Contrary to the author's proposed classification scheme, I argue that most magical practices are better viewed as "instrumental" rather than "ritualistic." Much ethnographic and historical evidence shows that magicians and ritual experts often have elaborate causal theories regarding how magic actions lead to the putative outcome, and the "physical/mechanical" versus "supernatural" distinction in causal mechanisms needs serious reconsideration.

Subtly encouraging more deliberate decisions: using a forcing technique and population stereotype to investigate free will.

Magicians' forcing techniques allow them to covertly influence spectators' choices. We used a type of force (Position Force) to investigate whether explicitly informing people that they are making a decision results in more deliberate decisions. The magician placed four face-down cards on the table in a horizontal row, after which the spectator was asked to select a card by pushing it forward. According to magicians and position effects literature, people should be more likely to choose a card in the third position from their left, because it can be easily reached. We manipulated whether participants were reminded that they were making a decision (explicit choice) or not (implicit choice) when asked to select one of the cards. Two experiments confirmed the efficiency of the Position Force-52% of participants chose the target card. Explicitly informing participants of the decision impairs the success of the force, leading to a more deliberate choice. A range of awareness measures illustrates that participants were unaware of their stereotypical behaviours. Participants who chose the target card significantly underestimated the number of people who would have chosen the same card, and felt as free as the participants who chose another card. Finally, we tested an embodied-cognition idea, but our data suggest that different ways of holding an object do not affect the level of self-control they have over their actions. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical implications regarding free will, Wegner's apparent mental causation, choice blindness and reachability effects.

The ultimate physical limits of privacy.

Among those who make a living from the science of secrecy, worry and paranoia are just signs of professionalism. Can we protect our secrets against those who wield superior technological powers? Can we trust those who provide us with tools for protection? Can we even trust ourselves, our own freedom of choice? Recent developments in quantum cryptography show that some of these questions can be addressed and discussed in precise and operational terms, suggesting that privacy is indeed possible under surprisingly weak assumptions.

Metacontrol and body ownership: divergent thinking increases the virtual hand illusion.

The virtual hand illusion (VHI) paradigm demonstrates that people tend to perceive agency and bodily ownership for a virtual hand that moves in synchrony with their own movements. Given that this kind of effect can be taken to reflect self-other integration (i.e., the integration of some external, novel event into the representation of oneself), and given that self-other integration has been previously shown to be affected by metacontrol states (biases of information processing towards persistence/selectivity or flexibility/integration), we tested whether the VHI varies in size depending on the metacontrol bias. Persistence and flexibility biases were induced by having participants carry out a convergent thinking (Remote Associates) task or divergent-thinking (Alternate Uses) task, respectively, while experiencing a virtual hand moving synchronously or asynchronously with their real hand. Synchrony-induced agency and ownership effects were more pronounced in the context of divergent thinking than in the context of convergent thinking, suggesting that a metacontrol bias towards flexibility promotes self-other integration.

Do You Believe in Magic? Shove, Don't Nudge: Advising Patients at the Bedside.

Magical thinking, distortions of reality based on fantasy, are pervasive in society and may influence patients' healthcare decisions. These distortions can "nudge" people to make decisions using System 1 thinking (a heuristic and error-prone decisional pathway that is always "on"), rather than a slower, deliberative, and more labor-intensive process that evaluates evidence (System 2). Physicians have been castigated for subtly nudging their patients toward evidence-based decisions. Yet when patients demonstrate magical thinking in their decision making, physicians have a professional responsibility to do more than nudge; they should shove patients toward decisions that will most likely achieve the healthcare goals they seek.

Evaluation of a Magic Camp for Children with Hemiparesis: A Pilot Study.

This single-group open trial was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of a two-week magic camp as a means of hand-arm motor skills training to improve upper limb motor function (unilateral and bilateral) in children with hemiparesis. Seven children with hemiparesis participated in a magic camp program which met 3 days a week, 4 hours each day, for two consecutive weeks for a total of 24 hours. Participants completed three assessments at the beginning of the camp, post-camp, and at a three-month follow-up: the Jebsen Hand Function Test (JHFT), Children's Hand Experience Questionnaire (CHEQ), and a box opening task that required coordination of both upper limbs. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed significant improvement in JHFT composite scores of the affected limb at post-camp (p = .04) and three-month follow-up (p = .04). In addition, a significant improvement in the number of activities performed using two hands from baseline to three-month follow-up was observed (p = .03). This pattern of improvement was also observed in the speed of completion for the box opening task. The improvement in motor function seems related to the participants' continuing performing daily activities with the affected hand and two hands after the magic camp.

Cancer and how the patients see it; prevalence and perception of risk factors: a cross-sectional survey from a tertiary care centre of Karachi, Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of cancer is rising but data available regarding prevalence of cancer and patient perception of the disease in Pakistan is limited. It is difficult to deal with Cancer if the main causes are negligence towards risk factors and bizarre myths. This study was aimed to investigate common cancer presentations at a government sector hospital and to gain insight into patient knowledge of the disease. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study conducted on cancer patients from Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Centre. A self-made questionnaire was used to assess the norms related to cancer prevalence in our society, associated myths, and the most common risk factors per them. RESULTS: A total of 402 participants consented to participate in the study (mean age 42.3 ± 15.07 years), 204(50.7%) were females and 190(47.3%) were illiterate. Biomass exposure was found in 147(37%), drug abuse in 132(33%) and smoking in 63(16%). We found 103(25.6%) had positive family histories of cancer. The most common primary tumor site was breast for females 98(48%) and Head and neck 66(33.3%) for males. Patients considered fate 328(82%), gutka 284(71%) and injuries 282(70%) as the most common causes for cancer; while 222(55.5%) considered black magic and 236(58.75%) considered evil eye as a risk factor for cancer. Cancer treatment caused significant financial stress in 376(93.5%) patients. CONCLUSION: Breast and head and neck cancers were found to be prevalent among patients. It was noted that patients are negligent in daily life regarding the consumption of substances that commonly cause cancer. Individuals had diminished knowledge and majority linked cancer to unrelated causes and myths like black magic and fate. Almost all the patients complained of severe financial stress imposed by the disease.

Culturally shared metaphors expand contemporary concepts of resilience and post-traumatic growth: contrasting an indigenous Brazilian community and a Swiss rural community.

The metaphorical concepts resilience and post-traumatic growth (PTG) reflect the contemporary Western understanding of overcoming highly challenging life events. However, it is known that across different cultures, a broad range of metaphorical idioms for describing adaptive responses to severe adversity exists. This study aimed to explore and contrast two distinct cultural groups' culturally shared metaphors for overcoming severe adversities. Fieldwork was conducted in two rural communities: an indigenous Brazilian community that has experienced severe collective adversity and a mountain village in Switzerland that has survived a natural disaster. We carried out separate qualitative metaphor analyses of semistructured interview data from each community. There were some similarities in the metaphorical narratives of the two cultural groups, for example, in metaphors of balance, changed perspective, collective cohesion and life as a journey The main variations were found in metaphors of magical thinking, equilibrium and organic transformation used by the Brazilian group and metaphors of work, order and material transformation used by the Swiss group. Results from this study suggest that the Western-devised concepts of resilience and PTG can be further expanded, which is highlighted by the variety of culturally shared metaphors. Metaphorical idioms for overcoming severe adversity may be determined by the type of trauma as well as by the sociocultural and historical context. Our findings indicate potential approaches to the cultural adaptation of psychological interventions.

Upper Limb Function of Children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy After a Magic-Themed HABIT: A Pre-Post-Study with 3- and 6-Month Follow-Up.

Aims: To examine changes in upper limb function, and performance in everyday tasks, for children with unilateral cerebral palsy who participated in a magic-themed hand-arm bimanual intensive therapy (HABIT). Methods: Twenty-eight children participated; mean age 10 y 6 mo (SD 2 y 2 mo), n = 15 male and n = 13 female. Using a single group, pre-and post-test design, the magic-themed HABIT was delivered for 60 hours over 10 days. Bimanual and unimanual hand function were measured using the Assisting Hand Assessment (AHA) and Box and Blocks Test (BBT). Occupational performance was rated using the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM). Two parent questionnaires explored change in bimanual hand use in everyday activities; ABILHAND-Kids and Children's Hand-use Experience Questionnaire (CHEQ). Assessments were completed pre-, immediately post, 3 months and 6 months after the intervention. Results: Friedman's ANOVA revealed a significant improvement for COPM and CHEQ grasp subscale. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant improvement in BBT, and ABILHAND-Kids, and no significant change for AHA. Conclusions: Children who participated in the magic-themed HABIT experienced improved occupational performance, unimanual skills, and parent ratings of performance in challenging everyday tasks.

Tooth Fairy guilty of favouritism!

OBJECTIVES: To determine the proportion of children visited by the Tooth Fairy, the child-related factors that influence the likelihood of her visit, and the parent-related variables that affect the amount of money the Tooth Fairy leaves. DESIGN: Cross-sectional questionnaire study. SETTING: Zürich, Switzerland. PARTICIPANTS: 3617 parents of children (mean age of children, 6.8 years; 51.9% girls) who had lost at least one deciduous tooth received a self-developed questionnaire; 1274 questionnaires were returned (35.2%). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary outcome variables were the Tooth Fairy's visit after tooth loss and the amount of money given in case of a visit. Child- and parent-related variables were assessed as predictors of the main outcomes. RESULTS: Most parents (71.0%) reported that the Tooth Fairy visited their child. She usually exchanged the lost tooth for money (55.8% of visits) or placed money next to the tooth (40.7%); rarely did she take the tooth without pecuniary substitution. The Tooth Fairy left an average of 7.20 Swiss francs (approximately AU$9.45). The Tooth Fairy favoured visiting for the teeth of older children (odds ratio [OR], per year, 1.87; 95% CI, 1.09-3.21), of boys (OR, 2.65; 95% CI, 1.09-6.42), and of children who believed in her (OR, 4.12; 95% CI, 1.77-9.64). The amount of money was influenced by maternal, but not paternal socio-demographic factors, including level of education (OR, per level, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.66-0.92) and country of origin (OR, Western countries v non-Western countries, 2.35; 95% CI, 1.20-4.62). CONCLUSIONS: The Tooth Fairy does not visit all children after tooth loss, displaying clear preferences in her choice of business partners. The odds of a visit are dramatically increased if she is believed in, and the value of a deciduous tooth is influenced by socio-demographic factors.

Can Magic Deception Be Detected at an Unconscious Level?

Magicians present magic tricks that seem to defy the laws of nature, entertaining us by manipulating our attention, perception, and awareness. However, although we are unaware of these manipulations at the level of conscious experience, we may still be aware of them at an unconscious level. We examined whether people can detect a magic deception outside of conscious awareness using an indirect measure. In the present study, we used the Cups and Balls magic trick, which is the transposition of balls between two cups. Participants viewed a video of the magic performance and were required to indicate the position of the ball in a direct self-report measure and completed the Single Category Implicit Association Test as an indirect measure. The results showed that the indirect measure of trick detection had higher accuracy than the direct measure. Our results suggest that while humans cannot consciously detect the magic deception, they do have a sense of what occurred on an unconscious level.

Physical contact influences how much people pay at celebrity auctions.

Contagion is a form of magical thinking in which people believe that a person's immaterial qualities or essence can be transferred to an object through physical contact. Here we investigate how a belief in contagion influences the sale of celebrity memorabilia. Using data from three high-profile estate auctions, we find that people's expectations about the amount of physical contact between the object and the celebrity positively predicts the final bids for items that belonged to well-liked individuals (e.g., John F. Kennedy) and negatively predicts final bids for items that belonged to disliked individuals (e.g., Bernard Madoff). A follow-up experiment further suggests that these effects are driven by contagion beliefs: when asked to bid on a sweater owned by a well-liked celebrity, participants report that they would pay substantially less if it was sterilized before they received it. However, sterilization increases the amount they would pay for a sweater owned by a disliked celebrity. These studies suggest that magical thinking may still have effects in contemporary Western societies and they provide some unique demonstrations of contagion effects on real-world purchase decisions.

Childrens' left-turning preference is not modulated by magical ideation.

The literature on human turning preferences is inconsistent. While the few studies with children below 14 years of age uniformly describe an overall left-turning (counterclockwise) tendency, a recent Internet study with more than 1500 adults found a right-sided (clockwise) bias. We set out to investigate spontaneous turning behaviour in children age 5-3 years and, based on neuropsychiatric work in adults, also explored a potential association with magical thinking. Findings indicated a clear left-turning preference, independent of a participant's sex and handedness. Whether a child responded a question about the existence of extrasensory communication in the affirmative or not was unrelated to direction and size of turning bias and lateral preference. Our results are consistent with a left-sided turning preference reported for children, but in opposition to the clockwise bias recently described in a large-scale study with adults. Whether they point to a maturational gradient in the preferred direction of spontaneous whole-body rotation or rather to a lack of comparability between measures used in observational versus Internet-based studies remains to be further investigated. Regarding a purported association between body turns and magical thinking, our study is preliminary, as only one single question was used to probe the latter.