Research perspectives on animal health in the era of artificial intelligence.

Leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) approaches in animal health (AH) makes it possible to address highly complex issues such as those encountered in quantitative and predictive epidemiology, animal/human precision-based medicine, or to study host × pathogen interactions. AI may contribute (i) to diagnosis and disease case detection, (ii) to more reliable predictions and reduced errors, (iii) to representing more realistically complex biological systems and rendering computing codes more readable to non-computer scientists, (iv) to speeding-up decisions and improving accuracy in risk analyses, and (v) to better targeted interventions and anticipated negative effects. In turn, challenges in AH may stimulate AI research due to specificity of AH systems, data, constraints, and analytical objectives. Based on a literature review of scientific papers at the interface between AI and AH covering the period 2009-2019, and interviews with French researchers positioned at this interface, the present study explains the main AH areas where various AI approaches are currently mobilised, how it may contribute to renew AH research issues and remove methodological or conceptual barriers. After presenting the possible obstacles and levers, we propose several recommendations to better grasp the challenge represented by the AH/AI interface. With the development of several recent concepts promoting a global and multisectoral perspective in the field of health, AI should contribute to defract the different disciplines in AH towards more transversal and integrative research.

The effect of steam sterilization on different 3D printable materials for surgical use in veterinary medicine.

BACKGROUND: Different 3D-printed materials polyactic acid (PLA), polyamide (PA), polycarbonates (PC), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and GreenTEC Pro®I have been considered for surgical templates, but there is a sparity of data about how these materials are affected by steam sterilization. The aim of the current study was to test if and how these materials change morphologically when high temperature, pressure and humidity are applied during the steam sterilization process. The overall aim is to create patient-specific sawing templates for performing corrective osteotomies. After the designing process, test-specimens with five different materials: PLA, PC, ABS, PA and GreenTEC Pro® were 3D-printed in two filling grades (30 and 100%). The FDM method was used for printing. After 3D-printing, the test-specimens were steam sterilized with a standard program lasting 20 min, at a temperature of 121 °C and a pressure of 2-3 bar. In order to measure the deviation of the printed model, we measured the individual test-specimens before and after steam sterilization using a sliding gauge. RESULTS: PC, PA and ABS showed great morphological deviations from the template after 3D-printing and steam sterilization (> 1%) respectively. ABS proved unsuitable for steam sterilization. PLA and GreenTEC Pro® demonstrated fewer morphological deviations both before and after sterilization. Therefore, we decided to perform a second test just with PLA and Green-TEC Pro® to find out which material has the highest stability and is probably able to be used for clinical application. The smallest deviations were found with the GreenTEC Pro® solid body. After autoclaving, the specimens showed a deviation from the planned body and remained below the 1% limit. CONCLUSION: Steam sterilization causes morphological deviations in 3D printed objects. GreenTEC Pro® seems to be a suitable material for clinical use, not only for intraoperative use, but also for precise modeling. Microbiological examination, as well as biomechanical tests, should be performed to further assess whether intraoperative use is possible.

Relationships between milk fat and rumination time recorded by commercial rumination sensing systems.

Low rumination in the dairy cow is often assumed to result in reduction of saliva flow, rumen buffering, and milk fat, which is a major contributor to milk value in many pricing systems. Rumination time (RT) of individual cows can be measured with commercial rumination sensing systems, but our understanding of how daily RT (minutes per day) is related to milk fat production is limited. Our hypothesis was that between cows within a herd, greater RT would be associated with lower milk fat concentration. Data from 1,823 cows on 2 commercial dairy farms in Pennsylvania over 8 DHIA tests were analyzed for a total of 8,587 cow test-days. Rumination was measured on farm A with CowManager SensoOr ear tags (Agis Automatisering BV, Harmelen, the Netherlands) and on farm B with SCR Hi-Tag neck collars (SCR Engineers, Netanya, Israel). Rumination data were collected for 7 consecutive days leading up to each DHIA test, summed within day, and averaged across days. Data were analyzed using linear mixed models with a repeated effect of test day. Daily RT reported by commercial rumination systems varied across and within cows and was strongly influenced by a cow effect. Greater RT tended to be associated with a small decrease in milk fat concentration in farm A, but was not related to milk fat in farm B. The reason for this difference is unclear, but may be related to a potentially greater prevalence of biohydrogenation-induced milk fat depression on farm A. The significant, but small, model coefficients for milk fat and RT indicate that the relationship between these variables may not be strong enough to permit identification of cows with biohydrogenation-induced milk fat depression based on RT from commercial systems alone. Research assessing changes in rumination before, during, and after onset of altered rumen fermentation is necessary to determine whether RT could be used to identify cows with altered rumen fermentation.

Medical-Grade ECG Sensor for Long-Term Monitoring.

The recent trend in electrocardiogram (ECG) device development is towards wireless body sensors applied for patient monitoring. The ultimate goal is to develop a multi-functional body sensor that will provide synchronized vital bio-signs of the monitored user. In this paper, we present an ECG sensor for long-term monitoring, which measures the surface potential difference between proximal electrodes near the heart, called differential ECG lead or differential lead, in short. The sensor has been certified as a class IIa medical device and is available on the market under the trademark Savvy ECG. An improvement from the user's perspective-immediate access to the measured data-is also implemented into the design. With appropriate placement of the device on the chest, a very clear distinction of all electrocardiographic waves can be achieved, allowing for ECG recording of high quality, sufficient for medical analysis. Experimental results that elucidate the measurements from a differential lead regarding sensors' position, the impact of artifacts, and potential diagnostic value, are shown. We demonstrate the sensors' potential by presenting results from its various areas of application: medicine, sports, veterinary, and some new fields of investigation, like hearth rate variability biofeedback assessment and biometric authentication.

An investigation into the bacterial contamination of goniolenses in use in clinical practice.

Objectives To report the incidence and evaluate the clinical significance of goniolens bacterial contamination in clinical use in dogs with three different usage protocols and one with an added cleaning protocol. Animals Studied and Methods Three groups of twenty dogs undergoing gonioscopy at a private practice in the UK had the goniolenses swabbed for bacteriology culture and identification prior to placement on the cornea. Three protocols of lens use, with 2 different types of goniolens, were studied. One protocol was then repeated with 21 dogs with a lens cleaning protocol prior to storage. Results Low levels of bacterial contamination were found in all 3 initial groups (10-15%). No correlation was found between usage protocol used and rate of contamination and no correlation was found between length of storage between use and contamination. All bacteria cultured were considered naturally occurring commensals for the canine eye and environment. The group with a cleaning protocol had a 4.7% contamination rate. This was not statistically different from the non-cleaning groups. Conclusions The rate of bacterial contamination of goniolenses in clinical practice is low and the bacterial contaminants consist of commensal bacteria, unlikely to be of detriment to the eye. Minimal contamination of the goniolenses was found and this did not appear to be of clinical significance. The introduction of a simple cleaning protocol did not produce a statistically significant reduction in bacterial contamination.

A survey of stereotactic radiation therapy in veterinary medicine.

Radiotherapy plays an important role in curative and palliative cancer treatment. As a novel radiation delivery technique, stereotactic radiotherapy utilizes three-dimensional-conformal treatment planning, high-precision beam delivery technology, and patient specific position verification to target tumors, often in one to five high-dose fractions. Currently, there is no consensus about best stereotactic radiotherapy practices in veterinary radiotherapy. The objective of this study was to document the breadth of perspectives, techniques, and applications of stereotactic radiotherapy in veterinary medicine. We conducted an online survey of American College of Veterinary Radiology members specializing in radiation oncology to assess how, when, and why stereotactic radiotherapy is being used. Both stereotactic radiotherapy users and nonusers completed the survey. The overall response and survey completion rates were 54% (67/123) and 87% (58/67), respectively. Overall, 55% of respondents reported providing stereotactic radiotherapy at their facility, with a median of 4.5 canine cases and one feline case per month. Delivery methods included C-arm linear accelerator with multi-leaf collimator, helical tomotherapy, and CyberKnife. Nonpituitary intracranial tumors, pituitary tumors, and sinonasal tumors were the most common cancers treated using stereotactic radiotherapy in both species. The most common fractionation scheme was three fractions of 10 Gy/fraction. The results of this survey suggest common availability of stereotactic radiotherapy in veterinary radiation facilities. These results provide valuable information regarding current stereotactic radiotherapy practices in veterinary medicine, and may provide an initial step toward standardizing methods and establishing consensus guidelines.

The Pathologist 2.0: An Update on Digital Pathology in Veterinary Medicine.

Using light microscopy to describe the microarchitecture of normal and diseased tissues has changed very little since the middle of the 19th century. While the premise of histologic analysis remains intact, our relationship with the microscope is changing dramatically. Digital pathology offers new forms of visualization, and delivery of images is facilitated in unprecedented ways. This new technology can untether us entirely from our light microscopes, with many pathologists already performing their jobs using virtual microscopy. Several veterinary colleges have integrated virtual microscopy in their curriculum, and some diagnostic histopathology labs are switching to virtual microscopy as their main tool for the assessment of histologic specimens. Considering recent technical advancements of slide scanner and viewing software, digital pathology should now be considered a serious alternative to traditional light microscopy. This review therefore intends to give an overview of the current digital pathology technologies and their potential in all fields of veterinary pathology (ie, research, diagnostic service, and education). A future integration of digital pathology in the veterinary pathologist's workflow seems to be inevitable, and therefore it is proposed that trainees should be taught in digital pathology to keep up with the unavoidable digitization of the profession.

Application of three hygrometers under different skin conditions in dogs: dry, moist and haired skin.

BACKGROUND: Hydration is one parameter of skin barrier function. The Skicon-200EX® and Corneometer CM825® are hygrometers used to measure skin hydration in humans based on different measurement methods. The ASA-MX3® is a hygrometer used to obtain measurements at haired skin sites in humans. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To validate three hygrometers to measure skin dryness in dogs. ANIMALS: Six clinically normal research dogs. METHODS: In vivo evaluation of three hygrometers for three different skin types was performed. Measurement of hydration was performed at five different regional sites. Dry and moist skin were induced by treatment with a sorbent and petrolatum, respectively, and measurements were collected for 120 min. Skin sites with three different hair lengths were evaluated to determine whether hair would interfere with hydration measurements. RESULTS: All three hygrometers obtained measurements at the nonhaired skin sites, except the ASA-MX3® hygrometer at the ear site. At the dry skin sites the Skicon-200EX® hygrometer detected a significant decrease of water content for longer than the other devices. At the moist skin sites the Corneometer CM825® and ASA-MX3® hygrometers showed a significant increase in water content. The ASA-MX3® hygrometer was the only device that could obtain measurements at sites with hair. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: The Skicon-200EX® hygrometer was the most sensitive for detecting skin dryness, whereas the Corneometer CM825® and ASA-MX3® hygrometers detected an emollient effect. Only the ASA-MX3® could provide measurements at the haired sites. This study may assist in the selection of a hygrometer based on the purpose of use.

FORENSIC RADIOLOGY AND IMAGING FOR VETERINARY RADIOLOGISTS.

Imaging studies are often of evidentiary value in medicolegal investigations involving animals and the role of the veterinary radiologist is to interpret those images for courts as an expert or opinion witness. With progressing interest in prosecuting animal crimes and strengthening of penalties for crimes against animals, the participation of veterinary radiologists in medicolegal investigations is expected to increase. Veterinary radiologists who are aware of radiographic and imaging signs that result in animal suffering, abuse, or neglect; knowledgeable in ways radiology and imaging may support cause of death determinations; conversant in postmortem imaging; comfortable discussing mechanisms and timing of blunt or sharp force and projectile trauma in imaging; and prepared to identify mimics of abuse can assist court participants in understanding imaging evidence. The goal of this commentary review is to familiarize veterinary radiologists with the forensic radiology and imaging literature and with the advantages and disadvantages of various imaging modalities utilized in forensic investigations. Another goal is to provide background information for future research studies in veterinary forensic radiology and imaging.

Regional Nerve Blocks for Equine Dentistry.

Regional nerve blocks are necessary to facilitate equine oral surgery in the standing sedated patient. Step-by-step instruction on how to perform common regional nerve blocks are discussed, including infraorbital, maxillary, middle mental, and inferior alveolar nerve blocks. Regional nerve blocks are critical when performing dental procedures in the standing horse.1 The infraorbital and maxillary nerve blocks provide anesthesia of the infraorbital nerve, which is a branch of the maxillary nerve. Both nerve blocks provide adequate anesthesia for all maxillary dental procedures.1 When the infraorbital nerve block is utilized, care must be taken to advance the needle into the infraorbital foramen in order to appropriately anesthetize the caudal maxillary teeth. Mandibular dental procedures require anesthesia of the inferior alveolar nerve, which is a branch of the mandibular nerve. Local anesthesia at the level of the mental foramen will result in anesthesia of ipsilateral incisors and canines, while anesthesia at the level of the mandibular foramen will anesthetize the entire ipsilateral mandibular dental quadrant. All nerve blocks should have the injection site aseptically prepared prior to the procedure. The 4 most common dental nerve blocks are described step by step.

Building an Oral Endoscope for Use in Equine Oral Examination and Treatment.

The use of oral endoscopy can be very beneficial in that it helps the clinician to perform a more thorough oral examination. However, due to the high cost, most commercially available equine oral endoscopy systems have been out of reach for clinicians who practice equine dentistry outside a large hospital setting. This article details how to set up an oral endoscopy system that can be used on equine patients either in an ambulatory practice or in a hospital setting. The system is more cost-effective than most other systems currently on the market without sacrificing functionality or image quality. The oral endoscope can be wirelessly integrated with a handheld tablet device or larger monitor for real-time viewing of images. It also has the ability to obtain high-resolution digital images and videos that can be easily incorporated into the patient's medical record. Incorporation of this system into equine practices has the potential to provide improved care for dental patients and to help overcome some of the inherent challenges of equine dentistry.

Experience with the delegation of anaesthesia for disbudding and castration to trained and certified livestock owners.

BACKGROUND: Anaesthesia is mandatory for disbudding and castrating calves and lambs of any age, in Switzerland. According to the "anaesthesia delegation model" (ADM), anaesthesia for disbudding calves <3 weeks of age and castrating calves and lambs <2 weeks of age may be administered by certified farmers. Experience with this unique model is not available. The aim was to evaluate the experience of the veterinary practitioners with the ADM. The response rate was 42%. The survey consisted of one questionnaire for each procedure. Procedure I was the delegation of anaesthesia for disbudding calves and procedures II and III were anaesthesia for castrating calves and lambs. RESULTS: Procedure I was performed with local anaesthesia in all farms of 51.8% of the veterinary practices, while this was only 39.3% and 7.6% for procedures II and III (p < 0.001). Anaesthesia for procedure I was administered technically correctly by farmers in at least 66% of the farms of 58.3% of the practitioners, while this was 45.4% and only 23.6% for procedures II and III (p < 0.001). The ADM was assessed as a moderate to very good model to reinforce the legal obligations for procedures I, II, or III by 74.8%, 76.5% and 62.0% of the veterinary practitioners (p < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: The delegation of anaesthesia to certified farmers may be a promising model to reinforce the obligation to provide local anaesthesia for disbudding and castrating calves, but to a lesser extent for castrating lambs.

Development of a training model for small animal thoracocentesis and chest tube thoracostomy.

Training veterinary students to perform emergency procedures, such as thoracocentesis and chest tube thoracostomy, poses challenges in terms of providing adequate hands-on experience without compromising animal welfare. A small animal thoracocentesis and chest tube thoracostomy model has been developed, that allows repetitive practice in a safe, standardised environment. The model has been incorporated into a clinical skills laboratory, where students work through computerised case studies in small groups, performing thoracocentesis or chest tube thoracostomy where indicated during the case. Student feedback indicated a high degree of satisfaction with the model and the laboratory experience, high perceived value of the case studies in improving learning, and increased confidence to perform the procedures under supervision. This model can replace the use of live animals while students are practising these procedures, improving their technique, and learning the appropriate safeguards used to prevent injuries such as pulmonary trauma.

A survey of veterinary radiation facilities in 2010.

A survey of veterinary radiation therapy facilities in the United States, Canada, and Europe was done in 2010, using an online survey tool, to determine the type of equipment available, radiation protocols used, caseload, tumor types irradiated, as well as other details of the practice of veterinary radiation oncology. The results of this survey were compared to a similar survey performed in 2001. A total of 76 facilities were identified including 24 (32%) academic institutions and 52 (68%) private practice external beam radiation therapy facilities. The overall response rate was 51% (39/76 responded). Based on this survey, there is substantial variation among facilities in all aspects ranging from equipment and personnel to radiation protocols and caseloads. American College of Veterinary Radiology boarded radiation oncologists direct 90% of the radiation facilities, which was increased slightly compared to 2001. All facilities surveyed in 2010 had a linear accelerator. More facilities reported having electron capability (79%) compared to the 2001 survey. Eight facilities had a radiation oncology resident, and academic facilities were more likely to have residents. Patient caseload information was available from 28 sites (37% of radiation facilities), and based on the responses 1376 dogs and 352 cats were irradiated in 2010. The most frequently irradiated tumors were soft tissue sarcomas in dogs, and oral squamous cell carcinoma in cats.

Construct validation of a small-animal thoracocentesis simulator.

Training students to perform emergency procedures is a critical but challenging component of veterinary education. Thoracocentesis is traditionally taught in the classroom, with students progressing to "see one, do one, teach one" during the clinical phase of their education. This method of teaching does not permit students to gain proficiency before performing thoracocentesis on a live animal in a high-stakes, high-stress environment and is dependent on the availability of animals requiring the procedure. A veterinary thoracocentesis simulator has been created to allow students an opportunity for repetitive practice in a low-stakes environment. This study evaluated the face, content, and construct validity of the thoracocentesis simulator. Face and content validation were confirmed by survey results, and construct validity was assessed through comparison of student and veterinarian performance on the simulator. Students' median checklist and global rating scores were significantly lower than those of the veterinarians, and students took significantly longer to perform the procedure, indicating that the simulator was able to differentiate the relative expertise of the user and establishing construct validity. This study supported the use of the thoracocentesis simulator for educators to demonstrate proper technique, for students to practice the steps needed to perform the procedure and experience an approximation of the tactile aspects of the task, and for formative assessment before performing the procedure on client-owned animals.

Using a smartphone-based digital fundus camera for screening of retinal and optic nerve diseases in veterinary medicine: A preliminary investigation.

BACKGROUND: Ophthalmoscopy is a valuable tool in clinical practice. We report the use of a novel smartphone-based handheld device for visualisation and photo-documentation of the ocular fundus in veterinary medicine. METHODS: Selected veterinary patients of a referral ophthalmology service were included if one or both eyes had clear ocular media, allowing for examination of the fundus. Following pharmacological mydriasis, fundic images were obtained with a handheld fundus camera (Volk VistaView). For comparison, the fundus of a subset of animals was also imaged with a veterinary-specific fundus camera (Optomed Smartscope VET2). RESULTS: The large field of view achieved by the Volk VistaView allowed for rapid and thorough observation of the ocular fundus in animals, providing a tool to visualise and record common pathologies of the posterior segment. Captured fundic images were sometimes overexposed, with the tapetal fundus artificially appearing hyperreflective when using the Volk VistaView camera, a finding that was less frequent when activating a 'veterinary mode' that reduced the sensitivity of the camera's sensor. The Volk VistaView compared well with the Optomed Smartscope VET2. LIMITATION: The main study limitation was the small sample size. CONCLUSIONS: The Volk VistaView camera was easy to use and provided good-quality fundic images in veterinary patients with healthy or diseased eyes, offering a wide field of view that was ideal for screening purposes.

Validation of handheld meters to measure blood L-lactate concentration in dairy cows and calves.

In cattle, blood lactate was measured in various conditions such as parturition and dystocia. To our knowledge, to date, no handheld device has been validated for the use in cows and only one handheld device was validated for the use in calves. When determining plasma lactate concentrations blood samples have to be processed carefully. Sodium fluoride was recommended to inhibit glycolysis and to stabilize plasma lactate concentrations during transport. However, its effect on measurements conducted with electrochemical meters has not been studied. The objectives of 3 experiments were to study factors influencing measures of L-lactate in dairy cows (e.g., different anticoagulants, different methods) and to validate a handheld device (Lactate Scout, SensLab GmbH, Leipzig, Germany) to determine L-lactate concentration in dairy cows and calves. In a first approach, blood samples from 49 cows were analyzed by 2 different laboratories. Measures of L-lactate concentration were correlated between the different laboratories in both lithium heparin plasma (r=0.98) and sodium fluoride plasma (r=0.99). In a second approach, these samples were analyzed using 3 methods [Lactate Scout, Biosen C_line (EKF Diagnostics GmbH, Barleben, Germany), and commercial laboratory]. Concentrations of L-lactate measured in lithium heparin did not differ when analyzed with the Lactate Scout (0.99±0.35 mmol/L), the Biosen C_line (0.81±0.26 mmol/L), or the laboratory (1.0±0.36 mmol/L). Concentrations of L-lactate measured in sodium fluoride, however, were higher when analyzed with the Lactate Scout (1.85±0.66 mmol/L) compared with those measured with the Biosen C_line (0.92±0.37 mmol/L) and by the commercial laboratory (0.72±0.45 mmol/L). In the second and third experiments, blood samples from 173 cows and 106 calves were analyzed using the 3 methods (Lactate Scout, Biosen C_line, and commercial laboratory). L-Lactate concentrations measured with the 3 methods were correlated (cows: Lactate Scout vs. Biosen C_line: r=0.97, Lactate Scout vs. laboratory 1: r=0.98, Biosen C_line vs. laboratory 1: r=0.99; calves: Lactate Scout vs. Biosen C_line: r=0.97, Lactate Scout vs. laboratory 1: r=0.98, Biosen C_line vs. laboratory 1: r=0.99). In conclusion, Lactate Scout and Biosen C_line measure blood L-lactate concentrations reliably compared with a commercial laboratory as the reference method in dairy cows and calves. However, attention needs to be paid to the choice of anticoagulant used in sample collection.

Novel cutaneous use of implantable loop recorders in two dogs with unexplained episodes of collapse.

Determining the cause of episodes of collapse can be difficult. Even in patients with frequent collapsing episodes due to cardiac causes, diagnostic surface electrocardiogram and 24 hr ambulatory electrocardiographic (Holter) monitoring are sometimes inconclusive. Event monitors with multiple leads can be challenging to use in veterinary medicine over long periods of time due to lead dislodgment. Implantable leadless loop recorders (ILRs) are useful, but owners are sometimes unwilling to have an ILR implanted due to the associated risks and/or costs. In this case report, the authors describe the use of cutaneously placed ILRs in two dogs with unexplained episodes of collapse/exercise intolerance. Data recorded provided clinically useful information. Cutaneously placed ILRs can be used effectively in veterinary medicine to evaluate patients with unexplained episodes of collapse.