Impact of Type 1 Versus Type 2 Diabetes on Developing Herpes Zoster and Post-herpetic Neuralgia: A Population-based Cohort Study.

Type 2 diabetes is associated with an increased risk of herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. However, the association of type 1 diabetes with herpes zoster or postherpetic neuralgia remains unclear. This retrospective cohort study using Taiwan's Health Insurance Research Database included 199,566 patients with type 1 diabetes and 1,458,331 with type 2 diabetes, identified during the period 2000 to 2012. Patients with type 1 diabetes had a significantly higher risk of developing herpes zoster than those with type 2 diabetes (p < 0.001). Across all age groups, the impact of diabetes on herpes zoster was greater in type 1 than in type 2 diabetes. Patients with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes had a 1.45-fold higher risk of post-herpetic neuralgia than those without diabetes (hazard ratio 1.45, 95% confidence interval 1.28-1.65; hazard ratio 1.45, 95% confidence interval 1.37-1.52, respectively), and there was no difference between the 2 types of diabetes (hazard ratio 1.06; 95% confidence interval 0.93-1.21). The results recommend consideration of herpes zoster vaccination at an earlier age in patients with type 1 diabetes.

Serum Inflammatory Cytokine Levels in Herpes Zoster Patients and Their Association with Postherpetic Neuralgia: A Prospective Study.

BACKGROUND This study aimed to investigate the serum levels of inflammatory cytokines in patients with herpes zoster (HZ) and to assess their correlation with the development of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN). Understanding this relationship may offer insight into the mechanisms of PHN and provide avenues for targeted treatment. MATERIAL AND METHODS We selected 169 patients diagnosed with HZ and 43 healthy controls (HCs) for the study. Serum levels of inflammatory cytokines were measured in all participants. Pain severity was evaluated using the visual analog scale (VAS). Based on follow-up data, the 169 HZ patients were categorized into 2 groups: those who developed PHN (HZ-PHN) and those who did not (HZ-Con). We then analyzed the differences in cytokine levels and their correlation with PHN development. RESULTS Compared to the HCs group, HZ patients exhibited a significant decrease in TNF-a levels and an increase in IL-10 levels (P<0.05, P<0.01). The VAS score was negatively correlated with TNF-alpha levels and positively correlated with IL-10 levels in HZ patients (r=-0.3081, P<0.01; r=0.5619, P<0.01). Distinctive levels of TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 were observed among different pain groups (P<0.05, P<0.01). The HZ-PHN group showed lower TNF-alpha and higher IL-10 levels compared to the HZ-Con group (P<0.05, P<0.01). IL-10 level was identified as an independent risk factor for PHN, with a sensitivity and specificity of 76.4% and 54.3%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Abnormal levels of inflammatory cytokines are present in HZ patients, and the IL-10 level may serve as a valuable indicator for predicting the risk of developing PHN.

Efficacy of indwelling trocar therapy for postherpetic neuralgia: A retrospective study of an acupuncture method.

Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is a common complication of herpes zoster. As a kind of continuous acupuncture, indwelling trocar therapy (ITT) involves inserting a trocar into the skin and retaining the soft cannula in the body for 24 h. However, the efficacy and safety of ITT on PHN require further verification. In this study, the medical records of 122 patients with PHN were retrospectively analyzed. Patients were divided into the control group (patients who received conventional drug therapy) and the ITT group (patients who underwent ITT combined with conventional drug therapy). The Visual Analog Scale (VAS), Quality of Sleep (QS), 36-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36), dosage of drug and adverse events were analyzed at days 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 90, and 180 after treatment. The total efficiency rate (TER) was analyzed after 6 months of follow-up. The VAS, QS and SF-36 scores in the ITT group improved substantially compared with those in the control group after 6 months of follow-up (p < 0.001). The average dosage of anticonvulsants and analgesics decreased significantly in the ITT group (p < 0.001). The TER in the control group was 52.46%, compared with 73.77% in the ITT group (p < 0.05). There were no adverse events, such as bleeding and infection, observed in the ITT group. For PHN patients, the combination of ITT and medicine therapy reduced VAS, improved quality of life, increased the efficiency rate, remarkably reduced the dosage of traditional medicine, and had no significant side effects. In addition, ITT was more effective in patients with a short duration of PHN than in chronic PHN patients.

[Herpes zoster-prevention, diagnosis, and treatment]. / Herpes zoster ­ Prävention, Diagnostik und Behandlung.

BACKGROUND: Herpes zoster (HZ) is a common skin disease resulting from a regionally limited reactivation of a latent infection with the varicella zoster virus (VZV). Despite its usually self-limiting course, HZ is associated with a considerable individual and public health burden of disease, particularly due to its high rate of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN). OBJECTIVES: To improve knowledge of the current recommendations for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Narrative review and summary of current guideline recommendations. RESULTS: In Germany, the recombinant VZV subunit zoster vaccine is recommended for all adults of 60+ years and for immunocompromised persons of 50+ years. The diagnosis of HZ is clinical; in case of uncertainty, laboratory investigations can help confirm the diagnosis. For patients with HZ ophthalmicus, HZ oticus or neurological complications, an interdisciplinary approach is advantageous. Antiviral treatment should be started as early as possible; various factors, including the duration and location of the disease, the patient's age and signs of a complicated course, serve to determine the indication to initiate an antiviral medication. The choice of the appropriate treatment depends, among other factors, on the intravenous availability, comorbidities and intake preferences. Early and sufficient analgesic treatment according to the WHO pain ladder and, if required, with anticonvulsant adjuvants is necessary to treat acute pain and to reduce the risk for PHN. CONCLUSION: Implementation of the current recommendations for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of HZ and PHN is important to reduce the high burden of disease and improve quality of life of the patients.

Efficacy of gabapentinoids for acute herpes zoster in preventing postherpetic neuralgia: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials.

Gabapentinoids (e.g., gabapentin and pregabalin) have been established as a treatment for postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), but their effects on the prevention of PHN are unclear. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the efficacy of gabapentinoids for acute herpes zoster (HZ) in preventing PHN. PubMed, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and Web of Science were queried December 2020 to collect data on relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs). A total of four RCTs (including 265 subjects) were retrieved. Overall, the incidence of PHN was lower, but not statistically significant in the gabapentinoid-treated group compared to the control group. Subjects treated with gabapentinoids were more likely to experience adverse events such as dizziness, somnolence, and gastrointestinal symptoms. This systematic review of RCTs showed that the addition of gabapentinoids during acute HZ are not significantly effective in preventing PHN. Nevertheless, the evidence on this subject remains limited. Physicians should carefully weigh the risks and benefits of prescribing gabapentinoids during the acute phase of HZ owing to its side effects.

A novel method to simultaneously record spinal cord electrophysiology and electroencephalography signals.

The brain and the spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). The functions of the human brain have been the focus of neuroscience research for a long time. However, the spinal cord is largely ignored, and the functional interaction of these two parts of the CNS is only partly understood. This study developed a novel method to simultaneously record spinal cord electrophysiology (SCE) and electroencephalography (EEG) signals and validated its performance using a classical resting-state study design with two experimental conditions: eyes-closed (EC) and eyes-open (EO). We recruited nine postherpetic neuralgia patients implanted with a spinal cord stimulator, which was modified to record SCE signals simultaneously with EEG signals. For both EEG and SCE, similar differences were found in delta- and alpha-band oscillations between the EC and EO conditions, and the spectral power of these frequency bands was able to predict EC/EO behaviors. Moreover, causal connectivity analysis suggested a top-down regulation in delta-band oscillations from the brain to the spinal cord. Altogether, this study demonstrates the validity of simultaneous SCE-EEG recording and shows that the novel method is a valuable tool to investigate the brain-spinal interaction. With this method, we can better unite knowledge about the brain and the spinal cord for a deeper understanding of the functions of the whole CNS.

Thermographic follow-up of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) subsequent to Ramsay Hunt syndrome with multicranial nerve (V, VII, VIII and IX) involvement: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Ramsay Hunt syndrome (RHS) is caused by a reactivation of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection, and it is characterized by the symptoms of facial paralysis, otalgia, auricular rash, and/or an oral lesion. Elderly patients or immunocompromised patients, deep pain at the initial visit and no prompt treatment are significant predictors of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN). When PHN occurs, especially involved cranial polyneuropathy, multiple modalities should be administered for patients with the intractable PHN. The use of thermography in the follow-up of PHN secondary to RHS with multicranial nerve involvement has not yet been described yet in the literature. CASE PRESENTATION: The patient was a 78-year-old man with the chief complaint of a 3-month history of PHN secondary to RHS with polycranial nerve (V, VII, VIII, and IX) involvement. Multimodality therapy with oral gabapentin, pulsed radiofrequency (PRF) application to the Gasserian ganglion for pain in the trigeminal nerve region, linear-polarized near-infrared light irradiation for pain in the facial nerve region, and 2% lidocaine spray for pain in the glossopharyngeal nerve region was used to the treat patient, and follow-up evaluations included thermography. This comprehensive treatment obviously improved the quality of life, resulting in considerable pain relief, as indicated by a decrease in the numerical rating scale (NRS) score from 9 to 3 and a decrease in thermal imaging temperature from higher to average temperature on the ipsilateral side compared with the contralateral side. Lidocaine spray on the tonsillar branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve resulted in an improvement in odynophagia, and the NRS score decreased from 9 to 0 for glossopharyngeal neuralgia after three applications. CONCLUSION: Although the use of thermography in the follow-up of RHS with multiple cranial nerve (V, VII, VIII, and IX) involvement is very rare, in this patient, thermal imaging showed the efficacy of combination therapy (oral gabapentin, 2% lidocaine sprayed, PRF application and linear-polarized near-infrared light irradiation) and that is a good option for treatment.

Effectiveness and safety of lidocaine patch 5% to treat herpes zoster acute neuralgia and to prevent postherpetic neuralgia.

Herpes zoster is often associated to acute neuralgia and postherpetic neuralgia (PHN). Their therapeutic management is still challenging: among therapeutic options, lidocaine patch 5% was rarely used in acute neuralgia on lesional skin, and its efficacy to prevent PHN was never studied. The efficacy and tolerability of lidocaine patch 5% was evaluated in 38 patients with acute neuralgia (19) and PHN (19). Pain intensity was investigated using DN4 questionnaire and NRS-11 scale at baseline and at week 2, 4, and 8. The use of rescue therapy was also evaluated. A significant reduction of DN4 and NRS-11 was observed already at W2, with further improvement at W4 and W8. A complete response to treatment (DN4 and NRS-11 = 0) at week 8 was higher in patients with acute neuralgia (63.2%) than PHN (31.6%). Rescue therapy gradually decreased in acute neuralgia patients from week 2 (57.9%) to week 8 (10.5%), with only two patients needing neuroleptics. In PHN patients rescue therapy remained stable (68.4%). According to our results, lidocaine patch 5% applied on lesional skin was well tolerated and ensured a rapid pain relief in acute neuralgia; if early used, it prevented PHN in almost all patients.

Computed Tomography-Guided Radiofrequency Ablation of the Cervical Dorsal Root Ganglia in 27 Patients with Cervical and Occipital Postherpetic Neuralgia.

BACKGROUND Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is a common complication of herpes zoster virus infection that is associated with intense pain. The present study aimed to investigate the use of computed tomography (CT)-guided radiofrequency ablation (RFA) of the cervical dorsal root ganglia (DRG) for treatment of cervical and occipital PHN in 27 patients at a single center. MATERIAL AND METHODS Twenty-seven patients with PHN in the cervical and/or occipital region were enrolled. After imaging the area of PHN in the patients, axial scanning was performed on the upper cervical segment in the spinal scanning mode. The puncture path was defined and then RFA therapy (90°C for 180 s) was performed by targeting the corresponding intervertebral foramen. Patients were followed 2 days later and at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months after surgery. Observation at each follow-up visit included rating of pain on a visual analog scale (VAS) and assessment of complications and adverse events. RESULTS VAS scores significantly decreased in patients with PHN after RFA compared with their scores before RFA (P<0.05). Skin sensation decreased in the area that was originally painful and allodynia significantly diminished. CONCLUSIONS The findings from this small study from a single center showed that CT-guided percutaneous RFA of cervical DRG safely and effectively reduced cervical and occipital PHN in the short term.

Postherpetic abdominal pseudohernia: An uncommon complication of herpes zoster.

Herpes zoster, a common inflammatory viral disease, results in several complications. Pain and sensory disorders are the main symptoms of herpes zoster. We reported a case of segmental abdominal zoster with progression to motor involvement and pseudohernia.

Postherpetic neuralgia and recalcitrant cystic lesions following herpes zoster: A case report and review of treatment options.

Acute herpes zoster lesions in most cases are self-limited except in older and immunocompromised patients, wherein the pain can cause significant suffering. Postherpetic neuralgia is a painful situation for patients that can compromise the quality of life. Here, we report a 30-year-old healthy young man who developed treatment-resistant postherpetic neuralgia after herpes zoster (fourth/fifth thoracic segment) without any underlying immunocompromised state. He also developed some cystic lesions, which were removed by aspiration and surgery. The skin lesions improved 2 weeks after the surgery and postherpetic neuralgia was completely cured after 5 months, however cystic lesions recurred multiple times and were excised completely during each visit. Postherpetic neuralgia has a significant impact on the health-care cost borne by the society and affected individual, hence, it is essential to select appropriate treatment to manage the pain of postherpetic neuralgia.

Study on the related factors of post-herpetic neuralgia in hospitalized patients with herpes zoster in Sichuan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine based on big data analysis.

Although various factors were reported to be related to post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN), studies based on adequate and comprehensive data were absent. Data was extracted from cases of hospitalized patients with herpes zoster in dermatology department, Sichuan hospital of traditional Chinese medicine range from December, 2011 to February, 2018, and then cleaned to build prediction model with TREENET algorithms. Following evaluated the prediction model by ROC and confusion matrix, variables importance ranking and variables dependency analysis were performed, resulting in the importance ranking of factors for PHN and the dependency between factors and PHN. Based on strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, 1303 (571 PHN and 732 normal controls) cases and 2958 indicators were selected. Model evaluation showed high ROC value (training sample = 0.985, test samples = 0.752) and high accuracy value (70.27%), which indicated that the model was predictive. After variables importance ranking and variables dependency analysis, 62 variables in the model were associated with the occurrence of PHN. Our study identified 62 variables related to PHN and revealed that various variables were the important risk factors for PHN, including age, MCHC, sodium and UA.

[Diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis of herpes zoster]. / Diagnostik, Therapie und Prophylaxe des Herpes zoster.

In the case of reduced cellular immunity the previously dormant varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes the characteristic belt-shaped vesicular exanthema of herpes zoster. The initial clinical symptoms of herpes zoster are often non-specific and may lead to initial misdiagnosis. A common complication of herpes zoster is postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) but secondary hematogenic dissemination is only rarely observed. In addition to general factors, such as advanced age and female gender, inflammatory rheumatic diseases and their immunosuppressive treatment are important risk factors for the occurrence of herpes zoster. Antiviral therapy initiated in the first 72 h after the onset of exanthema reduces acute symptoms and the risk of complications. The subunit inactivated vaccine, which has been available since 2018, is highly effective and relatively well-tolerated but randomized controlled trials in patients with drug-induced immunosuppression for inflammatory rheumatic diseases are still pending.

S2k guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia.

The present guidelines are aimed at residents and board-certified specialists in the fields of dermatology, ophthalmology, ENT, pediatrics, neurology, virology, infectious diseases, anesthesiology, general medicine and any other medical specialties involved in the management of patients with herpes zoster. They are also intended as a guide for policymakers and health insurance funds. The guidelines were developed by dermatologists, virologists, ophthalmologists, ENT physicians, neurologists, pediatricians and anesthesiologists/pain specialists using a formal consensus process (S2k). Readers are provided with an overview of the clinical and molecular diagnostic workup, including antigen detection, antibody tests and viral culture. Special diagnostic situations and complicated disease courses are discussed. The authors address general and special aspects of antiviral therapy for herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. Furthermore, the guidelines provide detailed information on pain management including a schematic overview, and they conclude with a discussion of topical treatment options.

A Rare Manifestation of Herpes Zoster: A Case Report.

Herpes zoster has an incidence of 350,000 cases per year in the United States. The involvement of the foot and ankle is rare. Most surgeons are not aware of this disease as a cause of extremity pain, its manifestation, and the treatment options. Post-herpetic neuralgia is a common sequela of herpes zoster and can be prevented with prompt treatment. In this article, we present a case of a 53-year-old female with right heel pain secondary to herpes zoster.

Relationships of varicella zoster virus (VZV)-specific cell-mediated immunity and persistence of VZV DNA in saliva and the development of postherpetic neuralgia in patients with herpes zoster.

There are no surrogate markers for the development of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) in patients with herpes zoster (HZ). All patients with HZ were prospectively enrolled to evaluate the associations of saliva varicella zoster virus (VZV) DNA persistence and VZV-specific cell-mediated immunity (CMI) with the development of PHN. Slow clearers were defined if salivary VZV DNA persisted after day 15. Salivary VZV was detected in 60 (85.7%) of a total of 70 patients with HZ on initial presentation. Of 38 patients for whom follow-up saliva samples were available, 26 (68.4%) were classified as rapid clearers and 12 (31.6%) as slow cleares. Initial VZV-specific CMI was lower in slow clearers than rapid clearers (median 45 vs 158 spot forming cells/10 6 cells, P = .02). Of the 70 patients with HZ, 22 (31.4%) eventually developed PHN. Multivariate analysis showed that slow clearers (OR, 15.7, P = .01) and lower initial VZV-specific CMI (OR, 13.8, P = .04) were independent predictors of the development of PHN, after adjustment for age and immunocompromised status. Initial low VZV CMI response and persistence of VZV DNA in saliva may be associated with the development of PHN.

Analysis of the Risk Factors for Postherpetic Neuralgia.

BACKGROUND: Postherpetic neuralgia is the most common complication of herpes zoster, affecting 30% of patients. It seriously affects the quality of life of patients and the curative effect of treatment is limited. So far, researchers do not fully understand the risk factors for postherpetic neuralgia and more research is needed. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this paper was to investigate the risk factors for postherpetic neuralgia and provide reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment. METHODS: A total of 202 inpatients with herpes zoster in the General Hospital of Tianjin Medical University were recruited as study subjects. According to the occurrence of postherpetic neuralgia, the patients were divided into the postherpetic neuralgia group and the nonpostherpetic neuralgia group. Data on age, gender, initial symptoms, clinical classification, involved nerves, pain grading, antiviral therapy, glucocorticoid use, and other clinical data of patients in the two groups were collected and statistically analyzed. Univariate and multivariate analysis methods were used to analyze the differences between the two groups and determine the influencing factors of postherpetic neuralgia. RESULTS: The univariate statistical analysis of the factors influencing postherpetic neuralgia showed that the contribution of gender, initial symptoms, general clinical classification, use of glucocorticoid, and the interval from onset to antiviral therapy were not statistically significant, while the differences in age, specific clinical classification, involved nerves, severity of pain during the acute stage, and body side of skin lesion distribution were statistically significant. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that gender, use of glucocorticoid, interval from onset to antiviral therapy, involved nerves, and specific clinical classification showed no statistical significance. However, there were significant differences in age, body side of skin lesion distribution, general clinical classification, and degree of pain during the acute stage of the disease. CONCLUSION: Pain during the acute stage of herpes zoster, age greater than 70 years, and serious type of skin lesion are risk factors for postherpetic neuralgia (p < 0.05, OR >1).

Axillary mononeuropathy after herpes zoster infection misdiagnosed as neuropathic pain

Zoster-associated extremity paresis is a rare complication of herpes zoster (HZ) and is usually due to zoster-associated mononeuropathy. Complaints of a 77-year-old man started with pain in his right arm and 4 days later he developed itchy red HZ lesions in the same area. One week later, the patient developed weakness in his right arm. The patient was diagnosed with isolated axillary mononeuropathy by physical examination and electromyography. Here, we present a case of axillary mononeuropathy which is a rare complication of HZ infection and needs particular attention.

Acute herpes zoster and post herpetic neuralgia in primary care: a study of diagnosis, treatment and cost.

Acute herpes zoster and its complication post herpetic neuralgia represent a significant challenge to primary care physicians in their care of an ageing population of patients. This was a cross-sectional observational study by means of a quantitative survey of 1,000 general practitioners registered in Ireland exploring the frequency of diagnosis, methods of treatment and cost of AHZ and PHN in primary care. We recorded an 18% response rate (n = 184) with an 83% completion rate (n = 152/184). 80% of cases of AHZ occurred in patients aged 50 years or more with 81% of study participants encountering cases at a rate of 1-3 patients per month. Famciclovir (37%) and valaciclovir (36%) were the most commonly prescribed antiviral agents. Mild opioids (32%) were the most common analgesic agents used for first line AHZ pain, and pregabalin (37%) the most commonly prescribed analgesic agent for second line AHZ pain. Pregabalin was also the most commonly prescribed analgesic for both first and second line PHN pain (29% and 24%, respectively). The mean per-case direct cost (medication and GP visits) of treating AHZ and PHN in primary care was €195 (range €153-€236) and €201 (range €140-€313), respectively. Based on national sentinel data the estimated annual direct costs of treating AHZ and PHN in primary care is €2,278,196 (range €1,793,399-€2, 763,445). The treatment of AHZ and PHN represents both a significant care and cost burden on primary care resources in Ireland in keeping with other European based studies.

[Update on anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis]. / Update Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartat-Rezeptor-Enzephalitis.

Autoimmune encephalitis is a group of autoimmune inflammatory disorders affecting both grey and white matter of the central nervous system. Encephalitis with autoantibodies against the N­methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA-R) is the most frequent autoimmune encephalitis syndrome presenting with a characteristic sequence of psychiatric and neurological symptoms. Treatment necessitates a close interdisciplinary cooperation. This article provides an update on the current knowledge on diagnostic standards, pathogenesis, and treatment strategies for anti-NMDA-R encephalitis from psychiatric and neurological perspectives.