Spontaneous and Targeted Mutations in the Decapping Enzyme Enhance Replication of Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara (MVA) in Monkey Cells.

Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) was derived by repeated passaging in chick fibroblasts, during which deletions and mutations rendered the virus unable to replicate in most mammalian cells. Marker rescue experiments demonstrated that the host range defect could be overcome by replacing DNA that had been deleted from near the left end of the genome. One virus isolate, however, recovered the ability to replicate in monkey BS-C-1 cells but not human cells without added DNA, suggesting that it arose from a spontaneous mutation. Here, we showed that variants with enhanced ability to replicate in BS-C-1 cells could be isolated by blind passaging of MVA and that in each there was a point mutation leading to an amino acid substitution in the D10 decapping enzyme. The sufficiency of these single mutations to enhance host range was confirmed by constructing recombinant viruses. The D10 mutations occurred at N- or C-terminal locations distal to the active site, suggesting an indirect effect on decapping or on another previously unknown role of D10. Although increased amounts of viral mRNA and proteins were found in BS-C-1 cells infected with the mutants compared to those with parental MVA, the increases were much less than the 1- to 2-log-higher virus yields. Nevertheless, a contributing role for diminished decapping in overcoming the host range defect was consistent with increased replication and viral protein synthesis in BS-C-1 cells infected with an MVA engineered to have active-site mutations that abrogate decapping activity entirely. Optimal decapping may vary depending on the biological context. IMPORTANCE Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is an attenuated virus that is approved as a smallpox vaccine and is in clinical trials as a vector for other pathogens. The safety of MVA is due in large part to its inability to replicate in mammalian cells. Although host range restriction is considered a stable feature of the virus, we describe the occurrence of spontaneous mutations in MVA that increase replication considerably in monkey BS-C-1 cells but only slightly in human cells. The mutants contain single nucleotide changes that lead to amino acid substitutions in one of the two decapping enzymes. Although the spontaneous mutations are distant from the decapping enzyme active site, engineered active-site mutations also increased virus replication in BS-C-1 cells. The effects of these mutations on the immunogenicity of MVA vectors remain to be determined.

Atomic structures of the RNA end-healing 5'-OH kinase and 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase domains of fungal tRNA ligase: conformational switches in the kinase upon binding of the GTP phosphate donor.

Fungal tRNA ligase (Trl1) rectifies RNA breaks with 2',3'-cyclic-PO4 and 5'-OH termini. Trl1 consists of three catalytic modules: an N-terminal ligase (LIG) domain; a central polynucleotide kinase (KIN) domain; and a C-terminal cyclic phosphodiesterase (CPD) domain. Trl1 enzymes found in all human fungal pathogens are untapped targets for antifungal drug discovery. Here we report a 1.9 Å crystal structure of Trl1 KIN-CPD from the pathogenic fungus Candida albicans, which adopts an extended conformation in which separate KIN and CPD domains are connected by an unstructured linker. CPD belongs to the 2H phosphotransferase superfamily by dint of its conserved central concave ß sheet and interactions of its dual HxT motif histidines and threonines with phosphate in the active site. Additional active site motifs conserved among the fungal CPD clade of 2H enzymes are identified. We present structures of the Candida Trl1 KIN domain at 1.5 to 2.0 Å resolution-as apoenzyme and in complexes with GTP•Mg2+, IDP•PO4, and dGDP•PO4-that highlight conformational switches in the G-loop (which recognizes the guanine base) and lid-loop (poised over the nucleotide phosphates) that accompany nucleotide binding.

Prebiotic Phosphorylation and Concomitant Oligomerization of Deoxynucleosides to form DNA.

Recent demonstrations of RNA-DNA chimeras (RDNA) enabling RNA and DNA replication, coupled with prebiotic co-synthesis of deoxyribo- and ribo-nucleotides, have resurrected the hypothesis of co-emergence of RNA and DNA. As further support, we show that diamidophosphate (DAP) with 2-aminoimidazole (amido)phosphorylates and oligomerizes deoxynucleosides to form DNA-under conditions similar to those of ribonucleosides. The pyrimidine deoxynucleoside 5'-O-amidophosphates are formed in good (≈60 %) yields. Intriguingly, the presence of pyrimidine deoxynucleos(t)ides increased the yields of purine deoxynucleotides (≈20 %). Concomitantly, oligomerization (≈18-31 %) is observed with predominantly 3',5'-phosphodiester DNA linkages, and some (<5 %) pyrophosphates. Combined with previous observations of DAP-mediated chemistries and the constructive role of RDNA chimeras, the results reported here help set the stage for systematic investigation of a systems chemistry approach of RNA-DNA coevolution.

ATPase and GTPase Tangos Drive Intracellular Protein Transport.

The GTPase superfamily of proteins provides molecular switches to regulate numerous cellular processes. The 'GTPase switch' paradigm, in which external regulatory factors control the switch of a GTPase between 'on' and 'off' states, has been used to interpret the regulatory mechanism of many GTPases. However, recent work unveiled a class of nucleotide hydrolases that do not adhere to this classical paradigm. Instead, they use nucleotide-dependent dimerization cycles to regulate key cellular processes. In this review article, recent studies of dimeric GTPases and ATPases involved in intracellular protein targeting are summarized. It is suggested that these proteins can use the conformational plasticity at their dimer interface to generate multiple points of regulation, thereby providing the driving force and spatiotemporal coordination of complex cellular pathways.

A DNA 3' phosphatase functions in active DNA demethylation in Arabidopsis.

DNA methylation is an important epigenetic mark established by the combined actions of methylation and demethylation reactions. Plants use a base excision repair pathway for active DNA demethylation. After 5-methylcytosine removal, the Arabidopsis DNA glycosylase/lyase ROS1 incises the DNA backbone and part of the product has a single-nucleotide gap flanked by 3'- and 5'-phosphate termini. Here we show that the DNA phosphatase ZDP removes the blocking 3' phosphate, allowing subsequent DNA polymerization and ligation steps needed to complete the repair reactions. ZDP and ROS1 interact in vitro and colocalize in vivo in nucleoplasmic foci. Extracts from zdp mutant plants are unable to complete DNA demethylation in vitro, and the mutations cause DNA hypermethylation and transcriptional silencing of a reporter gene. Genome-wide methylation analysis in zdp mutant plants identified hundreds of hypermethylated endogenous loci. Our results show that ZDP functions downstream of ROS1 in one branch of the active DNA demethylation pathway.

Structural and biochemical characterization of the yeast HD domain containing protein YGK1 reveals a metal-dependent nucleoside 5'-monophosphatase.

HD-domain is a conserved domain, with the signature of histidine and aspartic (HD) residues doublets. HD-domain proteins may possess nucleotidase and phosphodiesterase activities, and they play important roles in signaling and nucleotide metabolism. In yeast, HD-domain proteins with nucleotidase activity remained unexplored. Here, we biochemically and structurally characterized two HD domain proteins YGK1 (YGL101W) and YB92 (YBR242W) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae as nucleoside 5'-monophosphatases, with substrate preference for deoxyribonucleoside 5'-monophosphatase over ribonucleoside 5'-monophosphatase. By determining the crystal structure of YGK1, we unveiled that YGK1 structure resembled as the crystal structure of YfbR from E. coli. Size-exclusion chromatography and crosslinking studies suggested that YGK1 and YB92 existed in the form of a dimer, respectively, which were consistent with structural observation of YGK1. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated that more extensive conserved residues near the divalent metal coordinating active site were essential for YGK1 activity than previous suggested. The metal coordinating His89 and Asp90, and the neighboring conserved Glu93, Glu114 and Glu145 were individually critical for catalysis. In addition, alignments suggested that three flexible loops with hydrophobic residues might be implicated in substrate selectivity to nucleoside moiety. Together, our comparative structural and mutational studies suggested that YGK1 and YB92 functioned as 5'-nucleotidases in S. cerevisiae.

Advances in the Application of Modified Nucleotides in SELEX Technology.

Aptamers are widely used as molecular recognition elements for detecting and blocking functional biological molecules. Since the common "alphabet" of DNA and RNA consists of only four letters, the chemical diversity of aptamers is less than the diversity of protein recognition elements built of 20 amino acids. Chemical modification of nucleotides enlarges the potential of DNA/RNA aptamers. This review describes the latest achievements in a variety of approaches to aptamers selection with an extended genetic alphabet.

3'nucleotidase/nuclease in protozoan parasites: Molecular and biochemical properties and physiological roles.

3'-nucleotidase/nuclease (3'NT/NU) is a bi-functional enzyme that is able to hydrolyze 3'-monophosphorylated nucleotides and nucleic acids. This review summarizes the major molecular and biochemical properties of this enzyme in different trypanosomatid species. Sequence analysis of the gene encoding 3'NT/NU in Leishmania and Crithidia species showed that the protein possesses five highly conserved regions that are characteristic of members of the class I nuclease family. 3'NT/NU presents a molecular weight of approximately 40 kDa, which is conserved among the studied species. Throughout the review, we discuss inhibitors and substrate specificity, relating them to the putative structure of the enzyme. Finally, we present the major biological roles performed by 3'NT/NU. The involvement of 3'NT/NU in the purine salvage pathway was confirmed by the increase of activity and expression of the enzyme when the parasites were submitted to purine starvation. The generation of extracellular adenosine is also important to the modulation of the host immune response. Interaction assays involving Leishmania parasites and macrophages indicated that 3'-nucleotidase activity increases the association index between them. Recently, it was shown that 3'NT/NU plays a role in parasite escape from neutrophil extracellular traps, one of the first mechanisms of the host immune system for preventing infection.

Characterization and role of a 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase from Deinococcus radiodurans.

OBJECTIVES: A 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase gene (drCPDase) has been characterized from Deinococcus radiodurans and is involved in the robust resistance of this organism. RESULTS: Cells lacking 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase gene (drCPDase) showed modest growth defects and displayed increased sensitivities to high doses of various DNA-damaging agents including ionizing radiation, mitomycin C, UV and H2O2. The transcriptional level of drCPDase increased after H2O2 treatment. Additional nucleotide monophosphate partially recovered the phenotype of drCPDase knockout cells. Complementation of E. coli with drCPDase resulted in enhanced H2O2 resistance. CONCLUSIONS: The 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase (drCPDase) contributes to the extreme resistance of D. radiodurans and is presumably involved in damaged nucleotide detoxification.

Structure and mechanism of E. coli RNA 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase.

2H (two-histidine) phosphoesterase enzymes are distributed widely in all domains of life and are implicated in diverse RNA and nucleotide transactions, including the transesterification and hydrolysis of cyclic phosphates. Here we report a biochemical and structural characterization of the Escherichia coli 2H protein YapD YadP [corrected], which was identified originally as a reversible transesterifying "nuclease/ligase" at RNA 2',5'-phosphodiesters. We find that YapD YadP [corrected] is an "end healing" cyclic phosphodiesterase (CPDase) enzyme that hydrolyzes an HORNA>p substrate with a 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiester to a HORNAp product with a 2'-phosphomonoester terminus, without concomitant end joining. Thus we rename this enzyme ThpR (two-histidine 2',3'-cyclic phosphodiesterase acting on RNA). The 2.0 Å crystal structure of ThpR in a product complex with 2'-AMP highlights the roles of extended histidine-containing motifs (43)HxTxxF(48) and (125)HxTxxR(130) in the CPDase reaction. His43-Nε makes a hydrogen bond with the ribose O3' leaving group, thereby implicating His43 as a general acid catalyst. His125-Nε coordinates the O1P oxygen of the AMP 2'-phosphate (inferred from geometry to derive from the attacking water nucleophile), pointing to His125 as a general base catalyst. Arg130 makes bidentate contact with the AMP 2'-phosphate, suggesting a role in transition-state stabilization. Consistent with these inferences, changing His43, His125, or Arg130 to alanine effaced the CPDase activity of ThpR. Phe48 makes a π-π stack on the adenine nucleobase. Mutating Phe28 to alanine slowed the CPDase by an order of magnitude. The tertiary structure and extended active site motifs of ThpR are conserved in a subfamily of bacterial and archaeal 2H enzymes.

Evidence that the DNA endonuclease ARTEMIS also has intrinsic 5'-exonuclease activity.

ARTEMIS is a member of the metallo-ß-lactamase protein family. ARTEMIS has endonuclease activity at DNA hairpins and at 5'- and 3'-DNA overhangs of duplex DNA, and this endonucleolytic activity is dependent upon DNA-PKcs. There has been uncertainty about whether ARTEMIS also has 5'-exonuclease activity on single-stranded DNA and 5'-overhangs, because this 5'-exonuclease is not dependent upon DNA-PKcs. Here, we show that the 5'-exonuclease and the endonuclease activities co-purify. Second, we show that a point mutant of ARTEMIS at a putative active site residue (H115A) markedly reduces both the endonuclease activity and the 5'-exonuclease activity. Third, divalent cation effects on the 5'-exonuclease and the endonuclease parallel one another. Fourth, both the endonuclease activity and 5'-exonuclease activity of ARTEMIS can be blocked in parallel by small molecule inhibitors, which do not block unrelated nucleases. We conclude that the 5'-exonuclease is intrinsic to ARTEMIS, making it relevant to the role of ARTEMIS in nonhomologous DNA end joining.

Allosteric regulation of the human and mouse deoxyribonucleotide triphosphohydrolase sterile α-motif/histidine-aspartate domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1).

The deoxyribonucleotide triphosphohydrolase SAMHD1 restricts lentiviral infection by depleting the dNTPs required for viral DNA synthesis. In cultured human fibroblasts SAMHD1 is expressed maximally during quiescence preventing accumulation of dNTPs outside S phase. siRNA silencing of SAMHD1 increases dNTP pools, stops cycling human cells in G1, and blocks DNA replication. Surprisingly, knock-out of the mouse gene does not affect the well being of the animals. dNTPs are both substrates and allosteric effectors for SAMHD1. In the crystal structure each subunit of the homotetrameric protein contains one substrate-binding site and two nonidentical effector-binding sites, site 1 binding dGTP, site 2 dGTP or dATP. Here we compare allosteric properties of pure recombinant human and mouse SAMHD1. Both enzymes are activated 3-4-fold by allosteric effectors. We propose that in quiescent cells where SAMHD1 is maximally expressed GTP binds to site 1 with very high affinity, stabilizing site 2 of the tetrameric structure. Any canonical dNTP can bind to site 2 and activate SAMHD1, but in cells only dATP or dTTP are present at sufficient concentrations. The apparent Km for dATP at site 2 is ∼10 µm for mouse and 1 µm for human SAMHD1, for dTTP the corresponding values are 50 and 2 µm. Tetrameric SAMHD1 is activated for the hydrolysis of any dNTP only after binding of a dNTP to site 2. The lower Km constants for human SAMHD1 induce activation at lower cellular concentrations of dNTPs thereby limiting the size of dNTP pools more efficiently in quiescent human cells.

Structural and biochemical characterization of Chlamydia trachomatis hypothetical protein CT263 supports that menaquinone synthesis occurs through the futalosine pathway.

The obligate intracellular human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis is the etiological agent of blinding trachoma and sexually transmitted disease. Genomic sequencing of Chlamydia indicated this medically important bacterium was not exclusively dependent on the host cell for energy. In order for the electron transport chain to function, electron shuttling between membrane-embedded complexes requires lipid-soluble quinones (e.g. menaquionone or ubiquinone). The sources or biosynthetic pathways required to obtain these electron carriers within C. trachomatis are poorly understood. The 1.58Å crystal structure of C. trachomatis hypothetical protein CT263 presented here supports a role in quinone biosynthesis. Although CT263 lacks sequence-based functional annotation, the crystal structure of CT263 displays striking structural similarity to 5'-methylthioadenosine nucleosidase (MTAN) enzymes. Although CT263 lacks the active site-associated dimer interface found in prototypical MTANs, co-crystal structures with product (adenine) or substrate (5'-methylthioadenosine) indicate that the canonical active site residues are conserved. Enzymatic characterization of CT263 indicates that the futalosine pathway intermediate 6-amino-6-deoxyfutalosine (kcat/Km = 1.8 × 10(3) M(-1) s(-1)), but not the prototypical MTAN substrates (e.g. S-adenosylhomocysteine and 5'-methylthioadenosine), is hydrolyzed. Bioinformatic analyses of the chlamydial proteome also support the futalosine pathway toward the synthesis of menaquinone in Chlamydiaceae. This report provides the first experimental support for quinone synthesis in Chlamydia. Menaquinone synthesis provides another target for agents to combat C. trachomatis infection.

Identification of Drosophila and human 7-methyl GMP-specific nucleotidases.

Turnover of mRNA releases, in addition to the four regular nucleoside monophosphates, the methylated cap nucleotide in the form of 7-methylguanosine monophosphate (m(7)GMP) or diphosphate (m(7)GDP). The existence of pathways to eliminate the modified nucleotide seems likely, as its incorporation into nucleic acids is undesirable. Here we describe a novel 5' nucleotidase from Drosophila that cleaves m(7)GMP to 7-methylguanosine and inorganic phosphate. The enzyme, encoded by the predicted gene CG3362, also efficiently dephosphorylates CMP, although with lower apparent affinity; UMP and the purine nucleotides are poor substrates. The enzyme is inhibited by elevated concentrations of AMP and also cleaves m(7)GDP to the nucleoside and two inorganic phosphates, albeit less efficiently. CG3362 has equivalent sequence similarity to two human enzymes, cytosolic nucleotidase III (cNIII) and the previously uncharacterized cytosolic nucleotidase III-like (cNIII-like). We show that cNIII-like also displays 5' nucleotidase activity with a high affinity for m(7)GMP. CMP is a slightly better substrate but again with a higher K(m). The activity of cNIII-like is stimulated by phosphate. In contrast to cNIII-like, cNIII and human cytosolic nucleotidase II do not accept m(7)GMP as a substrate. We suggest that the m(7)G-specific nucleotidases protect cells against undesired salvage of m(7)GMP and its incorporation into nucleic acids.

Structures of human cytosolic and mitochondrial nucleotidases: implications for structure-based design of selective inhibitors.

The human 5'(3')-deoxyribonucleotidases catalyze the dephosphorylation of deoxyribonucleoside monophosphates to the corresponding deoxyribonucleosides and thus help to maintain the balance between pools of nucleosides and nucleotides. Here, the structures of human cytosolic deoxyribonucleotidase (cdN) at atomic resolution (1.08 Å) and mitochondrial deoxyribonucleotidase (mdN) at near-atomic resolution (1.4 Å) are reported. The attainment of an atomic resolution structure allowed interatomic distances to be used to assess the probable protonation state of the phosphate anion and the side chains in the enzyme active site. A detailed comparison of the cdN and mdN active sites allowed the design of a cdN-specific inhibitor.

Structural and biochemical properties of an extreme 'salt-loving' proteasome activating nucleotidase from the archaeon Haloferax volcanii.

In eukaryotes, the 26S proteasome degrades ubiquitinylated proteins in an ATP-dependent manner. Archaea mediate a form of post-translational modification of proteins termed sampylation that resembles ubiquitinylation. Sampylation was identified in Haloferax volcanii, a moderate halophilic archaeon that synthesizes homologs of 26S proteasome subunits including 20S core particles and regulatory particle triple-A ATPases (Rpt)-like proteasome-associated nucleotidases (PAN-A/1 and PAN-B/2). To determine whether sampylated proteins associate with the Rpt subunit homologs, PAN-A/1 was purified to homogeneity from Hfx. volcanii and analyzed for its subunit stoichiometry, nucleotide-hydrolyzing activity and binding to sampylated protein targets. PAN-A/1 was found to be associated as a dodecamer (630 kDa) with a configuration in TEM suggesting a complex of two stacked hexameric rings. PAN-A/1 had high affinity for ATP (K m of ~0.44 mM) and hydrolyzed this nucleotide with a specific activity of 0.33 ± 0.1 µmol Pi/h per mg protein and maximum at 42 °C. PAN-A1 was stabilized by 2 M salt with a decrease in activity at lower concentrations of salt that correlated with dissociation of the dodecamer into trimers to monomers. Binding of PAN-A/1 to a sampylated protein was demonstrated by modification of a far Western blotting technique (derived from the standard Western blot method to detect protein-protein interaction in vitro) for halophilic proteins. Overall, our results support a model in which sampylated proteins associate with the PAN-A/1 AAA+ ATPase in proteasome-mediated proteolysis and/or protein remodeling and provide a method for assay of halophilic protein-protein interactions.

Why myotoxin-containing snake venoms possess powerful nucleotidases?

The venom of the snake Bothrops asper causes muscle necrosis, pain and inflammation. This venom contains myotoxins which cause an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration and release of K(+) and ATP from myotubes. ATP is a key danger molecule that triggers a variety of reactions, including activation of the innate immune response. Here, using ATP-luciferase bioluminescence imaging technique, we show for the first time in vivo, that the purified myotoxins induce rapid release of ATP, whilst the complete venom of B. asper does at a very small extent. This apparent contradiction is explained by the finding that the venom contains powerful nucleotidases that in vivo convert ATP into ADP, AMP and Adenosine. These findings indicate that high concentrations of adenosine are generated by the double action of the venom and provide the experimental basis to the suggestion that in situ generated adenosine plays an important role in envenomation via its hypotensive, paralyzing and anti-coagulant activities.

Stress regulation of the PAN-proteasome system in the extreme halophilic archaeon Halobacterium.

In Archaea, the importance of the proteasome system for basic biological processes is only poorly understood. Proteasomes were partially purified from Halobacterium by native gradient density ultracentrifugation. The peptidase activity profiles showed that the 20S proteasome accumulation is altered depending on the physiological state of the cells. The amount of active 20S particles increases in Halobacterium cells as a response to thermal and low salt stresses. In the same conditions, Northern experiments showed a positive transcriptional regulation of the alpha and beta proteasome subunits as well as of the two proteasome regulatory ATPases, PANA and PANB. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated the existence of a physical interaction between the two Proteasome Activating Nucleotidase (PAN) proteins in cell extracts. Thus, a direct regulation occurs on the PAN-proteasome components to adjust the protein degradation activity to growth and environmental constraints. These results also indicate that, in extreme halophiles, proteasome mediated proteolysis is an important aspect of low salt stress response. The tri-peptide vinyl sulfone inhibitor NLVS was used in cell cultures to study the in vivo function of proteasome in Halobacterium. The chemical inhibition of proteasomes was measured in the cellular extracts. It has no effect on cell growth and mortality under normal growth conditions as well as under heat shock conditions. These results suggest that the PAN activators or other proteases compensate for loss of proteasome activity in stress conditions.

Cellular function and molecular structure of ecto-nucleotidases.

Ecto-nucleotidases play a pivotal role in purinergic signal transmission. They hydrolyze extracellular nucleotides and thus can control their availability at purinergic P2 receptors. They generate extracellular nucleosides for cellular reuptake and salvage via nucleoside transporters of the plasma membrane. The extracellular adenosine formed acts as an agonist of purinergic P1 receptors. They also can produce and hydrolyze extracellular inorganic pyrophosphate that is of major relevance in the control of bone mineralization. This review discusses and compares four major groups of ecto-nucleotidases: the ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases, ecto-5'-nucleotidase, ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterases, and alkaline phosphatases. Only recently and based on crystal structures, detailed information regarding the spatial structures and catalytic mechanisms has become available for members of these four ecto-nucleotidase families. This permits detailed predictions of their catalytic mechanisms and a comparison between the individual enzyme groups. The review focuses on the principal biochemical, cell biological, catalytic, and structural properties of the enzymes and provides brief reference to tissue distribution, and physiological and pathophysiological functions.

CANT1 mutation is also responsible for Desbuquois dysplasia, type 2 and Kim variant.

BACKGROUND: Desbuquois dysplasia (DD) is a recessively inherited condition characterised by short stature, generalised skeletal dysplasia and advanced bone maturation. DD is both clinically and radiographically heterogeneous, and two subtypes have been distinguished based on the presence (type 1) or absence (type 2) of an accessory metacarpal bone. In addition, an apparently distinct variant without additional metacarpal bone but with short metacarpals and long phalanges (Kim variant) has been described recently. Mutations in the gene that encodes for CANT1 (calcium-activated nucleotidase 1) have been identified in a subset of patients with DD type 1. METHODS: A series of 11 subjects with DD from eight families (one type 1, two type 2, five Kim variant) were examined for CANT1 mutations by direct sequencing of all coding exons and their flanking introns. RESULTS: Eight distinct mutations were identified in seven families (one type 1, one type 2 and all 5 Kim variant): three were nonsense and five were missense. All missense mutations occurred at highly conserved amino acids in the nucleotidase conserved regions of CANT1. Measurement of nucleotidase activity in vitro showed that the missense mutations were all associated with loss-of-function. CONCLUSION: The clinical-radiographic spectrum produced by CANT1 mutations must be extended to include DD type 2 and Kim variant. While presence or absence of an additional metacarpal ossification centre has been used to distinguish subtypes of DD, this sign is not a distinctive criterion to predict the molecular basis in DD.