Role of internal loop dynamics in antibiotic permeability of outer membrane porins.

Gram-negative bacteria pose a serious public health concern due to resistance to many antibiotics, caused by the low permeability of their outer membrane (OM). Effective antibiotics use porins in the OM to reach the interior of the cell; thus, understanding permeation properties of OM porins is instrumental to rationally develop broad-spectrum antibiotics. A functionally important feature of OM porins is undergoing open-closed transitions that modulate their transport properties. To characterize the molecular basis of these transitions, we performed an extensive set of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of Escherichia coli OM porin OmpF. Markov-state analysis revealed that large-scale motion of an internal loop, L3, underlies the transition between energetically stable open and closed states. The conformation of L3 is controlled by H bonds between highly conserved acidic residues on the loop and basic residues on the OmpF ß-barrel. Mutation of key residues important for the loop's conformation shifts the equilibrium between open and closed states and regulates translocation of permeants (ions and antibiotics), as observed in the simulations and validated by our whole-cell accumulation assay. Notably, one mutant system G119D, which we find to favor the closed state, has been reported in clinically resistant bacterial strains. Overall, our accumulated ∼200 µs of simulation data (the wild type and mutants) along with experimental assays suggest the involvement of internal loop dynamics in permeability of OM porins and antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria.

Host adaptation and convergent evolution increases antibiotic resistance without loss of virulence in a major human pathogen.

As human population density and antibiotic exposure increase, specialised bacterial subtypes have begun to emerge. Arising among species that are common commensals and infrequent pathogens, antibiotic-resistant 'high-risk clones' have evolved to better survive in the modern human. Here, we show that the major matrix porin (OmpK35) of Klebsiella pneumoniae is not required in the mammalian host for colonisation, pathogenesis, nor for antibiotic resistance, and that it is commonly absent in pathogenic isolates. This is found in association with, but apparently independent of, a highly specific change in the co-regulated partner porin, the osmoporin (OmpK36), which provides enhanced antibiotic resistance without significant loss of fitness in the mammalian host. These features are common in well-described 'high-risk clones' of K. pneumoniae, as well as in unrelated members of this species and similar adaptations are found in other members of the Enterobacteriaceae that share this lifestyle. Available sequence data indicate evolutionary convergence, with implications for the spread of lethal antibiotic-resistant pathogens in humans.

Functional role of ompF and ompC porins in pathogenesis of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli.

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli is an important pathogen causes systemic infections in avian species and large economic losses in poultry industry worldwide. The functional role of porins during the infection and their mechanisms of interaction with host tissues for adhesion to and invasion are poorly understood. However, whether porins play a role in infection remains unclear. In this study we evaluated the potential of ompF and ompC outer membrane porins in the pathogenesis of avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) strain TW-XM. The ompF and ompC were deleted to generate a series of mutants. We found that, ΔompF and ΔompC reduced significantly the adherence by 41.3% and 46.1% and invasion capabilities of APEC to mouse brain microvascular endothelial cell (BMEC) bEnd.3 cells in vitro by 51.9% and 49.7% respectively, compared with the wild strain TW-XM. In vivo experiment based on the measurement of the LD50 have also shown that, ΔompF and ΔompC reduced the bacterial virulence by 9.8-fold, 12.3-fold in ducklings and 9-fold, 10.2-fold in mouse models. Animal infection experiments further revealed that, loss of ompF and ompC reduced TW-XM colonization and invasion capacity in brains, lungs and blood compared to wild-type strain TW-XM (P > 0.01). These virulence-related phenotypes were partially recoverable by genetic complementation. The results of the quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) indicated that, the loss of ompF and ompC significantly decreased the expression levels of ompA, fimC and iBeA genes in the mutant strains, compared to wild-type strainTW-XM (P < 0.01). Collectively, our data demonstrate that inactivation of these two porins decreased adhesion, invasion, colonization, proliferation capacities, possibly by reduced expression levels of ompA, fimC and iBeA, which may indicate the involvement of ompF and ompC in APEC pathogenesis.

Functional characterization of an N-terminally-truncated mitochondrial porin expressed in Neurospora crassa.

Mitochondrial porin, which forms voltage-dependent anion-selective channels (VDAC) in the outer membrane, can be folded into a 19-ß-stranded barrel. The N terminus of the protein is external to the barrel and contains α-helical structure. Targeted modifications of the N-terminal region have been assessed in artificial membranes, leading to different models for gating in vitro. However, the in vivo requirements for gating and the N-terminal segment of porin are less well-understood. Using Neurospora crassa porin as a model, the effects of a partial deletion of the N-terminal segment were investigated. The protein, ΔN2-12porin, is assembled into the outer membrane, albeit at lower levels than the wild-type protein. The resulting strain displays electron transport chain deficiencies, concomitant expression of alternative oxidase, and decreased growth rates. Nonetheless, its mitochondrial genome does not contain any significant mutations. Most of the genes that are expressed in high levels in porin-less N. crassa are expressed at levels similar to that of wild type or are slightly increased in ΔN2-12porin strains. Thus, although the N-terminal segment of VDAC is required for complete function in vivo, low levels of a protein lacking part of the N terminus are able to rescue some of the defects associated with the absence of porin.

Permeation rates of penicillins indicate that Escherichia coli porins function principally as nonspecific channels.

Small, hydrophilic compounds such as ß-lactams diffuse across the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria through porin channels, which were originally thought to be nonspecific channels devoid of any specificity. However, since the discovery of an ampicillin-binding site within the OmpF channel in 2002, much attention has been focused on the potential specificity of the channel, where the binding site was assumed either to facilitate or to retard the penetration of ß-lactams. Since the earlier studies on porin permeability were done without the knowledge of the contribution of multidrug efflux pumps in the overall flux process across the cell envelope, in this study we have carefully studied both the porin permeability and active efflux of ampicillin and benzylpenicillin. We found that the influx occurs apparently by a spontaneous passive diffusion without any indication of specific binding within the concentration range relevant to the antibiotic action of these drugs, and that the higher permeability for ampicillin is totally as expected from the gross property of this drug as a zwitterionic compound. The active efflux by AcrAB was more effective for benzylpenicillin due to the stronger affinity and high degree of positive cooperativity. Our data now give a complete quantitative picture of the influx, efflux, and periplasmic degradation (catalyzed by AmpC ß-lactamase) of these two compounds, and correlate closely with the susceptibility of Escherichia coli strains used here, thus validating not only our model but also the parameters obtained in this study.

In Silico Structure and Sequence Analysis of Bacterial Porins and Specific Diffusion Channels for Hydrophilic Molecules: Conservation, Multimericity and Multifunctionality.

Diffusion channels are involved in the selective uptake of nutrients and form the largest outer membrane protein (OMP) family in Gram-negative bacteria. Differences in pore size and amino acid composition contribute to the specificity. Structure-based multiple sequence alignments shed light on the structure-function relations for all eight subclasses. Entropy-variability analysis results are correlated to known structural and functional aspects, such as structural integrity, multimericity, specificity and biological niche adaptation. The high mutation rate in their surface-exposed loops is likely an important mechanism for host immune system evasion. Multiple sequence alignments for each subclass revealed conserved residue positions that are involved in substrate recognition and specificity. An analysis of monomeric protein channels revealed particular sequence patterns of amino acids that were observed in other classes at multimeric interfaces. This adds to the emerging evidence that all members of the family exist in a multimeric state. Our findings are important for understanding the role of members of this family in a wide range of bacterial processes, including bacterial food uptake, survival and adaptation mechanisms.

High salt concentrations increase permeability through OmpC channels of Escherichia coli.

OmpF and OmpC porin channels are responsible for the passage of small hydrophilic solutes across the outer membrane of Escherichia coli. Although these channels are two of the most extensively studied porin channels, what had yet remained elusive was the reason why OmpC shows markedly lower permeability than OmpF, despite having little difference in its channel size. The OmpC channel, however, is known to contain a larger number of ionizable residues than the OmpF channel. In this study, we examined the channel property of OmpF and OmpC using the intact cell of E. coli, and we found that the permeability of several ß-lactams and lactose through OmpC became increased to the level comparable with OmpF with up to 0.3 m salt that may increase the Debye-Hückel shielding or with 2% ethanol or 0.3 m urea that may perturb the short range ordering of water molecules. Replacing 10 pore-lining residues that show different ionization behavior between OmpC and OmpF led to substantial conversion of channel property with respect to their permeability and response to external salt concentration. We thus propose that the overall configuration of ionizable residues in the channel that may orient water molecules and the electrostatic profile of the channel play a decisive role in defining the channel property of the OmpC porin rather than its channel size.

Porphyromonas gingivalis and related bacteria: from colonial pigmentation to the type IX secretion system and gliding motility.

Porphyromonas gingivalis is a gram-negative, non-motile, anaerobic bacterium implicated as a major pathogen in periodontal disease. P. gingivalis grows as black-pigmented colonies on blood agar, and many bacteriologists have shown interest in this property. Studies of colonial pigmentation have revealed a number of important findings, including an association with the highly active extracellular and surface proteinases called gingipains that are found in P. gingivalis. The Por secretion system, a novel type IX secretion system (T9SS), has been implicated in gingipain secretion in studies using non-pigmented mutants. In addition, many potent virulence proteins, including the metallocarboxypeptidase CPG70, 35 kDa hemin-binding protein HBP35, peptidylarginine deiminase PAD and Lys-specific serine endopeptidase PepK, are secreted through the T9SS. These findings have not been limited to P. gingivalis but have been extended to other bacteria belonging to the phylum Bacteroidetes. Many Bacteroidetes species possess the T9SS, which is associated with gliding motility for some of these bacteria.

Domain activities of PapC usher reveal the mechanism of action of an Escherichia coli molecular machine.

P pili are prototypical chaperone-usher pathway-assembled pili used by Gram-negative bacteria to adhere to host tissues. The PapC usher contains five functional domains: a transmembrane ß-barrel, a ß-sandwich Plug, an N-terminal (periplasmic) domain (NTD), and two C-terminal (periplasmic) domains, CTD1 and CTD2. Here, we delineated usher domain interactions between themselves and with chaperone-subunit complexes and showed that overexpression of individual usher domains inhibits pilus assembly. Prior work revealed that the Plug domain occludes the pore of the transmembrane domain of a solitary usher, but the chaperone-adhesin-bound usher has its Plug displaced from the pore, adjacent to the NTD. We demonstrate an interaction between the NTD and Plug domains that suggests a biophysical basis for usher gating. Furthermore, we found that the NTD exhibits high-affinity binding to the chaperone-adhesin (PapDG) complex and low-affinity binding to the major tip subunit PapE (PapDE). We also demonstrate that CTD2 binds with lower affinity to all tested chaperone-subunit complexes except for the chaperone-terminator subunit (PapDH) and has a catalytic role in dissociating the NTD-PapDG complex, suggesting an interplay between recruitment to the NTD and transfer to CTD2 during pilus initiation. The Plug domain and the NTD-Plug complex bound all of the chaperone-subunit complexes tested including PapDH, suggesting that the Plug actively recruits chaperone-subunit complexes to the usher and is the sole recruiter of PapDH. Overall, our studies reveal the cooperative, active roles played by periplasmic domains of the usher to initiate, grow, and terminate a prototypical chaperone-usher pathway pilus.

Inhibition of the alternative pathway of nonhuman infant complement by porin B2 contributes to virulence of Neisseria meningitidis in the infant rat model.

Neisseria meningitidis utilizes capsular polysaccharide, lipooligosaccharide (LOS) sialic acid, factor H binding protein (fHbp), and neisserial surface protein A (NspA) to regulate the alternative pathway (AP) of complement. Using meningococcal mutants that lacked all four of the above-mentioned molecules (quadruple mutants), we recently identified a role for PorB2 in attenuating the human AP; inhibition was mediated by human fH, a key downregulatory protein of the AP. Previous studies showed that fH downregulation of the AP via fHbp or NspA is specific for human fH. Here, we report that PorB2-expressing quadruple mutants also regulate the AP of baby rabbit and infant rat complement. Blocking a human fH binding region on PorB2 of the quadruple mutant of strain 4243 with a chimeric protein that comprised human fH domains 6 and 7 fused to murine IgG Fc enhanced AP-mediated baby rabbit C3 deposition, which provided evidence for an fH-dependent mechanism of nonhuman AP regulation by PorB2. Using isogenic mutants of strain H44/76 that differed only in their PorB molecules, we confirmed a role for PorB2 in resistance to killing by infant rat serum. The PorB2-expressing strain also caused higher levels of bacteremia in infant rats than its isogenic PorB3-expressing counterpart, thus providing a molecular basis for increased survival of PorB2 isolates in this model. These studies link PorB2 expression with infection of infant rats, which could inform the choice of meningococcal strains for use in animal models, and reveals, for the first time, that PorB2-expressing strains of N. meningitidis regulate the AP of baby rabbits and rats.

Investigating the link between imipenem resistance and biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a ubiquitous environmental organism, is a difficult-to-treat opportunistic pathogen due to its broad-spectrum antibiotic resistance and its ability to form biofilms. In this study, we investigate the link between resistance to a clinically important antibiotic, imipenem, and biofilm formation. First, we observed that the laboratory strain P. aeruginosa PAO1 carrying a mutation in the oprD gene, which confers resistance to imipenem, showed a modest reduction in biofilm formation. We also observed an inverse relationship between imipenem resistance and biofilm formation for imipenem-resistant strains selected in vitro, as well as for clinical isolates. We identified two clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa from the sputum of cystic fibrosis patients that formed robust biofilms, but were sensitive to imipenem (MIC ≤ 2 µg/ml). To test the hypothesis that there is a general link between imipenem resistance and biofilm formation, we performed transposon mutagenesis of these two clinical strains to identify mutants defective in biofilm formation, and then tested these mutants for imipenem resistance. Analysis of the transposon mutants revealed a role for previously described biofilm factors in these clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa, including mutations in the pilY1, pilX, pilW, algC, and pslI genes, but none of the biofilm-deficient mutants became imipenem resistant (MIC ≥ 8 µg/ml), arguing against a general link between biofilm formation and resistance to imipenem. Thus, assessing biofilm formation capabilities of environmental isolates is unlikely to serve as a good predictor of imipenem resistance. We also discuss our findings in light of the limited literature addressing planktonic antibiotic resistance factors that impact biofilm formation.

The cardiac mitochondrion: nexus of stress.

The emergence of mitochondria as critical regulators of cardiac myocyte survival and death has revolutionized the field of cardiac biology. Indeed, it is now well recognized that mitochondrial dysfunction plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of multiple cardiac diseases. A panoply of mitochondrial proteins/complexes ranging from canonical apoptosis proteins such as Bcl2 and Bax, through the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, to ion channels such as mitochondrial K(ATP) channels and connexin-43 have now been implicated as critical regulators of cardiac cell death. The purpose of this review, therefore, is to focus on these mitochondrial mediators/inhibitors of cell death and to address the specific mechanisms that underlie their ability to influence cardiac pathology.

Glycerol inhibits water permeation through Plasmodium falciparum aquaglyceroporin.

Plasmodium falciparum aquaglyceroporin (PfAQP) is a multifunctional membrane protein in the plasma membrane of P. falciparum, the parasite that causes the most severe form of malaria. The current literature has established the science of PfAQP's structure, functions, and hydrogen-bonding interactions but left unanswered the following fundamental question: does glycerol modulate water permeation through aquaglyceroporin that conducts both glycerol and water? This paper provides an affirmative answer to this question of essential importance to the protein's functions. On the basis of the chemical-potential profile of glycerol from the extracellular bulk region, throughout PfAQP's conducting channel, to the cytoplasmic bulk region, this study shows the existence of a bound state of glycerol inside aquaglyceroporin's permeation pore, from which the dissociation constant is approximately 14µM. A glycerol molecule occupying the bound state occludes the conducting pore through which permeating molecules line up in single file by hydrogen-bonding with one another and with the luminal residues of aquaglyceroporin. In this way, glycerol inhibits permeation of water and other permeants through aquaglyceroporin. The biological implications of this theory are discussed and shown to agree with the existent in vitro data. It turns out that the structure of aquaglyceroporin is perfect for the van der Waals interactions between the protein and glycerol to cause the existence of the bound state deep inside the conducting pore and, thus to play an unexpected but significant role in aquaglyceroporin's functions.

Isolation, functional characterization and crystallization of Aq_1259, an outer membrane protein with porin features, from Aquifex aeolicus.

The "hypothetical protein" Aq_1259 was identified by mass spectrometry and purified from native membranes of Aquifex aeolicus. It is a 49.4kDa protein, highly homologous (>52% identity) to several conserved hypothetical proteins from other bacteria. However, none of these proteins has been characterized using biochemical or electrophysiological techniques. Based on the sequence and circular dichroism spectroscopy, the structure of Aq_1259 is predicted to be a ß-barrel with 16 ß-strands. The strands with loops and turns are distributed evenly through the entire sequence. The function of Aq_1259 was analyzed after incorporation into a lipid bilayer. Electrophysiological measurements revealed a pore that has a basic stationary conductance of 0.48 ± 0.038nS in a buffer with 0.5M NaH2PO4 at pH 6.5 and 0.2 ± 0.015nS in a buffer with 0.5M NaCl at pH 6.5. Superimposed on this is a fluctuating conductance of similar amplitude. Aq_1259 could be crystallized. The crystals diffract to a resolution of 3.4Å and belong to space group I222 with cell dimensions of a=138.3Å, b=144.6Å, c=151.8Å.

Crystal structures of the OmpF porin: function in a colicin translocon.

The OmpF porin in the Escherichia coli outer membrane (OM) is required for the cytotoxic action of group A colicins, which are proposed to insert their translocation and active domains through OmpF pores. A crystal structure was sought of OmpF with an inserted colicin segment. A 1.6 A OmpF structure, obtained from crystals formed in 1 M Mg2+, has one Mg2+ bound in the selectivity filter between Asp113 and Glu117 of loop 3. Co-crystallization of OmpF with the unfolded 83 residue glycine-rich N-terminal segment of colicin E3 (T83) that occludes OmpF ion channels yielded a 3.0 A structure with inserted T83, which was obtained without Mg2+ as was T83 binding to OmpF. The incremental electron density could be modelled as an extended poly-glycine peptide of at least seven residues. It overlapped the Mg2+ binding site obtained without T83, explaining the absence of peptide binding in the presence of Mg2+. Involvement of OmpF in colicin passage through the OM was further documented by immuno-extraction of an OM complex, the colicin translocon, consisting of colicin E3, BtuB and OmpF.

The role of bacterial membrane proteins in the internalization of microcin MccJ25 and MccB17.

Microcins are gene-encoded antibacterial peptides of low molecular mass (<10 kDa), produced by Enterobactericeae. They are produced and secreted under conditions of limited essential nutrients and are active against related species. Bacterial strains under starvation conditions can produce and release microcins that can kill microcin-sensitive cells and therefore have more nutrients for survival. The outer-membrane protein OmpF and FhuA TonB-dependent pathways facilitate the internalization of the MccB17 and MccJ25 microcins into the target cell respectively. The inner-membrane protein SbmA transports the microcins through the inner membrane to the cytoplasmic face. Inside the cell, MccB17 targets DNA gyrase, whereas MccJ25 inhibits the bacterial RNA polymerase.

Two separate interfaces between the voltage sensor and pore are required for the function of voltage-dependent K(+) channels.

Voltage-dependent K(+) (Kv) channels gate open in response to the membrane voltage. To further our understanding of how cell membrane voltage regulates the opening of a Kv channel, we have studied the protein interfaces that attach the voltage-sensor domains to the pore. In the crystal structure, three physical interfaces exist. Only two of these consist of amino acids that are co-evolved across the interface between voltage sensor and pore according to statistical coupling analysis of 360 Kv channel sequences. A first co-evolved interface is formed by the S4-S5 linkers (one from each of four voltage sensors), which form a cuff surrounding the S6-lined pore opening at the intracellular surface. The crystal structure and published mutational studies support the hypothesis that the S4-S5 linkers convert voltage-sensor motions directly into gate opening and closing. A second co-evolved interface forms a small contact surface between S1 of the voltage sensor and the pore helix near the extracellular surface. We demonstrate through mutagenesis that this interface is necessary for the function and/or structure of two different Kv channels. This second interface is well positioned to act as a second anchor point between the voltage sensor and the pore, thus allowing efficient transmission of conformational changes to the pore's gate.

Neisseria lactamica selectively induces mitogenic proliferation of the naive B cell pool via cell surface Ig.

Neisseria lactamica is a commensal bacteria that colonizes the human upper respiratory tract mucosa during early childhood. In contrast to the closely related opportunistic pathogen Neisseria meningitidis, there is an absence of adaptive cell-mediated immunity to N. lactamica during the peak age of carriage. Instead, outer membrane vesicles derived from N. lactamica mediate a B cell-dependent proliferative response in mucosal mononuclear cells that is associated with the production of polyclonal IgM. We demonstrate in this study that this is a mitogenic human B cell response that occurs independently of T cell help and any other accessory cell population. The ability to drive B cell proliferation is a highly conserved property and is present in N. lactamica strains derived from diverse clonal complexes. CFSE staining of purified human tonsillar B cells demonstrated that naive IgD(+) and CD27(-) B cells are selectively induced to proliferate by outer membrane vesicles, including the innate CD5(+) subset. Neither purified lipooligosaccharide nor PorB from N. lactamica is likely to be responsible for this activity. Prior treatment of B cells with pronase to remove cell-surface Ig or treatment with BCR-specific Abs abrogated the proliferative response to N. lactamica outer membrane vesicles, suggesting that this mitogenic response is dependent upon the BCR.

Linearity, saturation and blocking in a large multiionic channel: divalent cation modulation of the OmpF porin conductance.

Measurement of unitary conductance is a fundamental step in the characterization of a protein ion channel permeabilizing a membrane. We study here the effect of salts of divalent cations on the OmpF channel conductance with a particular emphasis in dissecting the role of the electrolyte itself, the role of the counterion accumulation induced by the protein channel charges and other effects not found in salts of monovalent cations. We show that current saturation and blocking are not exclusive properties of narrow (single-file) ion channels but may be observed in large, multiionic channels like bacterial porins. Single-channel conductance measurements performed over a wide range of salt concentrations (up to 3 M) combined with continuum electrodiffusion calculations demonstrate that current saturation cannot be simply ascribed to ion interaction with protein channel residues.

Bacterial porin disrupts mitochondrial membrane potential and sensitizes host cells to apoptosis.

The bacterial PorB porin, an ATP-binding beta-barrel protein of pathogenic Neisseria gonorrhoeae, triggers host cell apoptosis by an unknown mechanism. PorB is targeted to and imported by host cell mitochondria, causing the breakdown of the mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)). Here, we show that PorB induces the condensation of the mitochondrial matrix and the loss of cristae structures, sensitizing cells to the induction of apoptosis via signaling pathways activated by BH3-only proteins. PorB is imported into mitochondria through the general translocase TOM but, unexpectedly, is not recognized by the SAM sorting machinery, usually required for the assembly of beta-barrel proteins in the mitochondrial outer membrane. PorB integrates into the mitochondrial inner membrane, leading to the breakdown of DeltaPsi(m). The PorB channel is regulated by nucleotides and an isogenic PorB mutant defective in ATP-binding failed to induce DeltaPsi(m) loss and apoptosis, demonstrating that dissipation of DeltaPsi(m) is a requirement for cell death caused by neisserial infection.