Serotonin Modulates AhR Activation by Interfering with CYP1A1-Mediated Clearance of AhR Ligands.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is a neurotransmitter and hormone with important physiological functions in many organs, including the intestine. We have previously shown that 5-HT activates the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) via a serotonin transporter (SERT)-dependent mechanism. AhR is a nuclear receptor that binds a variety of molecules including tryptophan (TRP) metabolites to regulate physiological processes in the intestine including xenobiotic detoxification and immune modulation. We hypothesized that 5-HT activates AhR indirectly by interfering with metabolic clearance of AhR ligands by cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1). METHODS: Inhibition of CYP1A1 activity by 5-HT was assessed in the human intestinal epithelial cell line Caco-2 and recombinant CYP1A1 microsomes using both luciferase and LC-MS/MS. Degradation of 5-HT by recombinant CYP1A1 was measured by LC-MS/MS. For in vitro studies, CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 mRNA expression levels were measured by RT-PCR and CYP1A1 activity was measured by ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) assays. For in vivo studies, AhR ligands were administered to SERT KO mice and WT littermates and intestinal mucosa CYP1A1 mRNA was measured. RESULTS: We show that 5-HT inhibits metabolism of both the pro-luciferin CYP1A1 substrate Luc-CEE as well as the high affinity AhR ligand 6-formylindolo[3,2-b] carbazole (FICZ). Recombinant CYP1A1 assays revealed that 5-HT is metabolized by CYP1A1 in an NADPH dependent manner. Treatment with 5-HT in TRP-free medium, which is devoid of trace AhR ligands, showed that 5-HT requires the presence of AhR ligands to activate AhR. Cotreatment with 5-HT and FICZ confirmed that 5-HT potentiates induction of AhR target genes by AhR ligands. However, this was only true for ligands which are CYP1A1 substrates such as FICZ. Administration of ß-napthoflavone by gavage or indole-3-carbinol via diet to SERT KO mice revealed that lack of SERT impairs intestinal AhR activation. CONCLUSION: Our studies provide novel evidence of crosstalk between serotonergic and AhR signaling where 5-HT can influence the ability of AhR ligands to activate the receptor in the intestine.

Induction of thymic stromal lymphopoietin production by nonanoic acid and exacerbation of allergic inflammation in mice.

BACKGROUND: Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) plays critical roles in the induction and exacerbation of allergic diseases. We tested various chemicals in the environment and found that xylene and 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene induced the production of TSLP in vivo. These findings prompted us to search for additional chemicals that induce TSLP production. In this study, we examined whether fatty acids could induce the production of TSLP in vivo and exacerbate allergic inflammation. METHODS: Various fatty acids and related compounds were painted on the ear lobes of mice and the amount of TSLP in the homogenate of ear lobe tissue was determined. The effects of nonanoic acid on allergic inflammation were also examined. RESULTS: Octanoic acid, nonanoic acid, and decanoic acid markedly induced TSLP production, while a medium-chain aldehyde and alcohol showed only weak activity. Nonanoic acid induced the production of TSLP with a maximum at 24 h. TSLP production was even observed in nonanoic acid-treated C3H/HeJ mice that lacked functional toll-like receptor 4. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonist ß-naphthoflavone did not induce TSLP production. Nonanoic acid promoted sensitization to ovalbumin, resulting in an enhancement in the cutaneous anaphylactic response. In addition, painting of nonanoic acid after the sensitization augmented picryl chloride-induced thickening of the ear, which was reversed in TSLP receptor-deficient mice. CONCLUSIONS: Nonanoic acid and certain fatty acids induced TSLP production, resulting in the exacerbation of allergic inflammation. We propose that TSLP-inducing chemical compounds such as nonanoic acid be recognized as chemical allergo-accelerators.

New CYP1 genes in the frog Xenopus (Silurana) tropicalis: induction patterns and effects of AHR agonists during development.

The Xenopus tropicalis genome shows a single gene in each of the four cytochrome P450 1 (CYP1) subfamilies that occur in vertebrates, designated as CYP1A, CYP1B1, CYP1C1, and CYP1D1. We cloned the cDNAs of these genes and examined their expression in untreated tadpoles and in tadpoles exposed to waterborne aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonists, 3,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB126), ß-naphthoflavone (ßNF), or indigo. We also examined the effects of PCB126 on expression of genes involved in stress response, cell proliferation, thyroid homeostasis, and prostaglandin synthesis. PCB126 induced CYP1A, CYP1B1, and CYP1C1 but had little effect on CYP1D1 (77-, 1.7-, 4.6- and 1.4-fold induction versus the control, respectively). ßNF induced CYP1A and CYP1C1 (26- and 2.5-fold), while, under conditions used, indigo tended to induce only CYP1A (1.9-fold). The extent of CYP1 induction by PCB126 and ßNF was positively correlated to the number of putative dioxin response elements 0-20 kb upstream of the start codons. No morphological effect was observed in tadpoles exposed to 1 nM-10 µM PCB126 at two days post-fertilization (dpf) and screened 20 days later. However, in 14-dpf tadpoles a slight up-regulation of the genes for PCNA, transthyretin, HSC70, Cu-Zn SOD, and Cox-2 was observed two days after exposure to 1 µM PCB126. This study of the full suite of CYP1 genes in an amphibian species reveals gene- and AHR agonist-specific differences in response, as well as a much lower sensitivity to CYP1 induction and short-term toxicity by PCB126 compared with in fish larvae. The single genes in each CYP1 subfamily may make X. tropicalis a useful model for mechanistic studies of CYP1 functions.

Identification of new 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline urinary metabolites from beta-naphthoflavone-treated mice.

Metabolism of the heterocyclic amine carcinogen 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) was evaluated in mice with and without 40 mg/kg beta-naphthoflavone (BNF). Following an oral dose of 40 mg/kg (14)C-IQ, a 24-h urine sample was collected. Metabolism was assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography, and metabolites were identified by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Three new metabolites were identified as 1,2-dihydro-2-amino-5-hydroxy-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (m/z 217, [M + H](+)), 1,2-dihydro-2-amino-5-O-glucuronide-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (m/z 393, [M + H](+)), and 1,2-dihydro-2-amino-5,7-dihydroxy-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (m/z 233, [M + H](+)). These metabolites represented 21% of the total urinary radioactivity recovered. For BNF-treated mice, the abundance of metabolites observed was 5-O-glucuronide > m/z 217 > m/z 393 > 5-sulfate > m/z 233 > N-glucuronide > demethyl-IQ > sulfamate. In control mice, metabolite urinary abundance was 5-O-glucuronide > demethyl-IQ > sulfamate > N-glucuronide > m/z 217 > 5-sulfate. In liver slices from BNF-treated mice, synthesis of m/z 217 and 5-O-glucuronide was significantly reduced by ellipticine, a cytochrome P450 (P450) inhibitor, whereas sulfamate synthesis was significantly increased and demethyl-IQ was unchanged. Liver microsomes from BNF-treated mice produced m/z 217 and demethyl-IQ, with the former inhibited by ellipticine and furafylline, a selective 1A2 inhibitor, and the latter by ellipticine only. Injection (intraperitoneal) of demethyl-IQ into BNF-treated mice resulted in only a 30% conversion to three metabolites that were not observed in urine from animals receiving IQ. Results from BNF-treated mice showed significant IQ metabolism by hepatic P450s. Therefore, differences in metabolism between mice treated with and without BNF may affect IQ tumorigenicity.

Intestinal cellular localization of PCNA protein and CYP1A mRNA in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. exposed to a model toxicant.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to examine the intestinal cellular localization of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and cytochrome P450 A1 (CYP1A) expression in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. exposed to a model toxicant. The stress response was induced by intraperitoneal injection of four salmon with a single dose (50 mg/kg) of the CYP1A inducer beta-naphthoflavone (BNF) and intestinal tissue (mid and distal intestine; MI and DI) was sampled seven days later. Samples for histology and gene transcription analysis were collected from four exposed fish and four control fish. PCNA was assessed by immunohistochemistry, CYP1A mRNA was studied by in situ hybridization (ISH) and finally the transcription of five genes was quantified by real-time quantitative RT-PCR (real-time RT-PCR); two detoxifying genes (CYP1A and glutathione S-transferase; GST), a stress marker gene (heat shock protein 70; HSP70), PCNA and a gene marker of apoptosis (caspase 6A). RESULTS: PCNA protein and CYP1A mRNA were successfully localized in the intestinal cells (MI) of both experimental groups. At the cellular level, BNF significantly lowered intestinal cell proliferation and increased the CYP1A mRNA levels compared to the control group. The real-time RT-PCR data, which showed an increased mRNA expression both in the MI and DI of 139- and 62-fold, respectively, confirmed the increased cellular CYP1A mRNA levels detected using ISH. HSP70 expression was also up-regulated in the exposed fish. The other examined genes did not show any differential regulation in the experimental fish group. CONCLUSION: This study showed that CYP1A mRNA had a specific intestinal cellular transcription pattern in Atlantic salmon exposed to BNF. At the cellular level CYP1A mRNA expression was always observed at or around the cell nucleus close to the basolateral cell membrane and at the tissue level CYP1A mRNA expression was most frequently observed in the basal and apex area of the intestinal folds. Taken together, a link between the intestinal detoxification system (CYP1A) and cell renewal system (PCNA) is indicated with these two processes being inversely correlated in BNF exposed fish.

Crystalline silica is a negative modifier of pulmonary cytochrome P-4501A1 induction.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are products of incomplete combustion that are commonly inhaled by workers in the dusty trades. Many PAHs are metabolized by cytochrome P-4501A1 (CYP1A1), which may facilitate excretion but may activate pulmonary carcinogens. PAHs also stimulate their own metabolism by inducing CYP1A1. Recent studies suggest that respirable coal dust exposure inhibits induction of pulmonary CYP1A1 using the model PAH beta-naphthoflavone. The effect of the occupational particulate respirable crystalline silica was investigated on PAH-dependent pulmonary CYP1A1 induction. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to intratracheal silica or vehicle and then intraperitoneal beta-naphthoflavone, a CYP1A1 inducer, and/or phenobarbital, an inducer of hepatic CYP2B1, or vehicle. Beta-naphthoflavone induced pulmonary CYP1A1, but silica attenuated this beta-naphthoflavone-induced CYP1A1 activity and also suppressed the activity of CYP2B1, the major constitutive CYP in rat lung. The magnitude of CYP activity suppression was similar regardless of silica exposure dose within a range of 5 to 20 mg/rat. Phenobarbital and beta-naphthoflavone had no effect on pulmonary CYP2B1 activity. Both enzymatic immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescent staining for CYP1A1 indicated that sites of CYP1A1 induction were nonciliated airway epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and the alveolar septum. Using immunofluorescent colocalization of CYP1A1 with cytokeratin 8, a marker of alveolar type II cells, the proximal alveolar region was the site of both increased alveolar type II cells and decreased proportional CYP1A1 expression in alveolar type II cells. Our findings suggest that in PAH-exposed rat lung, silica is a negative modifier of CYP1A1 induction and CYP2B1 activity.

Acute and prolonged stress responses of brain monoaminergic activity and plasma cortisol levels in rainbow trout are modified by PAHs (naphthalene, beta-naphthoflavone and benzo(a)pyrene) treatment.

We have investigated if treatment with two different PAHs such as naphthalene (NAP) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), and the PAH-like compound beta-naphthoflavone (BNF), may modify the stress responses elicited in rainbow trout by acute or prolonged stress stimuli, and the possible involvement of brain monoamines in those responses. Two experiments (acute and prolonged stress) were performed. In the acute stress experiment, fish were i.p. injected with vegetable oil alone (control) or oil containing NAP, BNF or BaP (10 mg kg(-1)), and 72 h after injection fish were acutely stressed by chasing for 15 min. In the prolonged stress experiment, a similar group-design and injection protocol were followed, but fish were submitted to severe confinement stress by maintaining fish under high stock density (70 kg fish mass m(-3)) for 72 h. The levels of cortisol, glucose and lactate were assayed in plasma. In addition, the contents of dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA) and serotonin (5HT), as well as their oxidized amine metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and 5-hydroxy-3-indoleacetic acid (5HIAA) were assayed in telencephalon, hypothalamus, preoptic region, optic tectum and brain stem, as well as the pituitary. Both acute and prolonged stress stimuli increased plasma levels of cortisol, which further increase with NAP and BNF treatments after acute stress. In contrast, cortisol levels of fish exposed to prolonged stress showed a clear tendency to decrease after the treatment with BNF and BaP. Stress stimuli also increased plasma glucose levels, which were not affected by PAHs in acute stressed fish but decreased in fish exposed to prolonged stress. Increased plasma levels of lactate in fish exposed to stress decreased after PAHs treatment in acute stress but not in prolonged stress. With respect to monoaminergic systems, major changes induced by both acute and prolonged stress were increases of the metabolites DOPAC and 5HIAA and DOPAC/DA or 5HIAA/5HT ratios in several brain regions. PAHs induced alterations in the normal responses of monoaminergic systems to stress, with dopaminergic system being the most affected after acute stress, and serotonergic system after prolonged stress. Those alterations, especially after prolonged stress, showed certain parallelism with alterations of plasma cortisol levels. Thus, results suggest that in stressed fish PAH effects on plasma cortisol levels (and its derived metabolic actions) could be in part mediated by alterations on the monoaminergic systems at the CNS of rainbow trout.

Newborn Mice Lacking the Gene for Cyp1a1 Are More Susceptible to Oxygen-Mediated Lung Injury, and Are Rescued by Postnatal ß-Naphthoflavone Administration: Implications for Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia in Premature Infants.

Prolonged hyperoxia contributes to bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in preterm infants. ß-Naphthoflavone (BNF) is a potent inducer of cytochrome P450 (CYP)1A enzymes, which have been implicated in hyperoxic injuries in adult mice. In this investigation, we tested the hypothesis that newborn mice lacking the Cyp1a1 gene would be more susceptible to hyperoxic lung injury than wild-type (WT) mice and that postnatal BNF treatment would rescue this phenotype by mechanisms involving CYP1A and/or NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) enzymes. Newborn WT or Cyp1a1-null mice were treated with BNF (10 mg/kg) or the vehicle corn oil (CO) i.p., from postnatal day (PND) 2 to 14 once every other day, while being maintained in room air or hyperoxia (85% O2) for 14 days. Both genotypes showed lung injury, inflammation, and alveolar simplification in hyperoxia, with Cyp1a1-null mice displaying increased susceptibility compared to WT mice. BNF treatment resulted in significant attenuation of lung injury and inflammation, with improved alveolarization in both WT and Cyp1a1-null mice. BNF exposed normoxic or hyperoxic WT mice showed increased expression of hepatic CYP1A1/1A2, pulmonary CYP1A1, and NQO1 expression at both mRNA and protein levels, compared with vehicle controls. However, BNF caused greater induction of hepatic CYP1A2 and pulmonary NQO1 enzymes in the Cyp1a1-null mice, suggesting that BNF protects against hyperoxic lung injury in WT and Cyp1a1-null mice through the induction of CYP1A and NQO1 enzymes. Further studies on the protective role of flavonoids against hyperoxic lung injury in newborns could lead to novel strategies for the prevention and/or treatment of BPD.

Upregulation of cytochromes P450 2B in rat liver by orphenadrine.

1 The alkylamine drug orphenadrine (ORPH) is an inducer and inhibitor of the microsomal cytochrome P450 (CYP) system in mammals. This study evaluated the selectivity of CYP induction by ORPH in rat liver. 2 Immunoblot analysis indicated that ORPH was a selective inducer of the phenobarbitone (PB)-inducible CYP2B in rat liver. CYP2B protein was increased to approximately 14-fold of levels in untreated rat liver. By comparison PB increased CYP2B expression 40-fold. Corresponding increases in the activity of CYP2B-dependent androstenedione 16beta-hydroxylation were measured in microsomes from ORPH and PB-induced rats. 3 Northern analysis indicated that CYP2B1/2 mRNA was increased in ORPH-induced rat liver. Consistent with this finding, ORPH was found to activate a PB-responsive enhancer module in constitutive androstane receptor (CAR)-transfected Hep G2 cells. 4 Other alkylamines like troleandomycin impair CYP turnover. We tested whether ORPH induction of CYP2B may include a post-translational component. In PB-pretreated animals ORPH administration delayed the loss of CYP2B after PB withdrawal, but no evidence for altered turnover was found. 5 These studies establish ORPH as a selective inducer of CYP2B in rat liver. Induction appears to be mediated pretranslationally by CAR activation of CYP2B gene transcription. Post-translational stabilisation by an ORPH metabolite does not elicit induction. Induction of CYP2B may influence pharmacokinetic interactions involving ORPH.

Influence of beta-naphthoflavone on 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene metabolism, DNA adduction, and tumorigenicity in rainbow trout.

Metabolism, DNA adduction, and tumor induction by 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) were examined in cultured trout liver cells and in vivo in trout. Modulating CYP1A1 activity indicated this enzyme plays a significant role in metabolizing DMBA to water-soluble compounds in isolated trout liver cells. The major DMBA metabolites identified in trout liver cells were 10-, 11-, 8,9-, and 5,6-DMBA dihydrodiols, and DMBA, 2- or 3- or 4-phenol; 7-OH-methyl-12-methyl-benz(a)anthracene and 12-OH-methyl-7-methyl-benz(a)anthracene were minor metabolites. A very small amount of DMBA-3,4-dihydrodiol was detected, and polar metabolites, which did not migrate with any DMBA metabolite standards, were observed. Incubating trout hepatocytes with DMBA-3, 4-dihydrodiol produced three prominent, nonpolar adducts indistinguishable from those in mouse embryo cells. However, DMBA-DNA adducts, formed in trout in vivo or in trout liver cells exposed to DMBA, were predominantly more polar than those formed in mouse embryo fibroblasts, and levels of DMBA-DNA adducts formed in trout liver cells were not significantly altered by modulating CYP1A1 activity. No significant repair of DMBA-DNA adducts was detected in cultured trout liver cells over a 48-h period, supporting previous studies indicating that fish are less efficient than mammals in repairing polyaromatic hydrocarbon DNA adducts. Compared to animals receiving DMBA alone, beta-naphthoflavone pretreatment in vivo did not affect hepatic CYP1A1, DMBA-DNA adducts, nor hepatic tumor response; but did significantly reduce tumor response in two other target organs. These results collectively indicate that DMBA bioactivation to DNA-binding metabolites in trout liver cells and mouse embryo cells predominantly involve different metabolic pathways to form the DNA-binding intermediates.

Barramundi as an indicator species for environmental monitoring in North Queensland, Australia: laboratory versus field studies.

The dose-response relationship for hepatic 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) induction in barramundi (Lates calcarifer) was examined under controlled laboratory conditions for 15 d using farm-reared barramundi. These results were compared with EROD activity measured in barramundi collected from two rivers catchments (impacted and nonimpacted) in northern Queensland, Australia. Barramundi were dosed by intraperitoneal injection with a known cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) inducer, beta-naphthoflavone (beta-NF), at 5, 10, and 50 mg kg(-1) using two controls: A vehicle control (corn-oil injected) and an experimental control (no injection). The EROD induction occurred within 4 h in the 5, 10, and 50 mg beta-NF kg(-1) exposures, reaching mean maximum activities of 88.6 (+/-51.9), 85.5 (+/-91.7), and 149.1 (+/-106.4) pmol min(-1) mg protein(-1), respectively. Mean EROD activities remained low in the corn-oil controls (2.1+/-1.8 pmol min(-1) mg protein(-1)) and experimental controls (5.3+/-4.4 pmol min(-1) mg protein(-1)) throughout the study. Barramundi demonstrated a rapid response curve, which was dose dependent (50 > 10 > 5 mg beta-NF kg(-1)) and decreased progressively over time from induction. Measurement of total cytochrome P450 content (nmol mg protein(-1)) was not dose dependent. The EROD activities from field-collected barramundi from the Johnstone River (impacted) and Olive River (nonimpacted) suggest exposure to low-level contaminants in the Johnstone River fish only. With more controlled laboratory and field studies, barramundi have the potential to become a major indicator species in assessing exposure to environmental contaminants in coastal areas throughout northern Queensland, Australia.

Enhanced liver tumor promotion but not liver initiation activity in rats subjected to combined administration of omeprazole and ß-naphthoflavone.

Omeprazole (OPZ) and ß-naphthoflavone (BNF) are cytochrome P450 (CYP)1A inducers and have liver tumor promoting effects. In this study, we investigated the co-promoting and co-initiating effects of OPZ and BNF in rats. In Experiment 1, male rats were subjected to partial hepatectomy (PH), and given oral doses of 138 or 276 mg/kg OPZ, 0.125% or 0.25% BNF or 138 mg/kg OPZ+0.125% BNF (n = 9~12) for 6 weeks after N-diethylnitrosamine (DEN) initiation. In Experiment 2, male rats were treated with oral doses of 138 or 276 mg/kg OPZ, 0.03% or 0.06% BNF or 138 mg/kg OPZ+0.03% BNF (n = 11~12) for 9 days starting 1 week before initiating treatment. As an initiating treatment, 2-Amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinolone (MeIQx) was orally administered 12 hr after PH. The rats were fed a basal diet for 15 days, followed by a diet containing 0.015% 2-acetylaminofluorene for the next 10 days with a single oral dose of carbon tetrachloride. In Experiment 1, the number and area of glutathione S-transferase placental form-positive foci in the OPZ+BNF group were significantly higher than the average values of the High OPZ or the High BNF group. The expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) and COX-2 protein in the liver significantly increased in the OPZ+BNF group. In Experiment 2, liver initiation activity was not enhanced by the co-administration of OPZ+BNF. The results of our studies suggest that the co-administration of OPZ and BNF results in synergistic effects in the liver tumor promotion probably owing to increased COX-2 expression, but no modifying effect in the liver initiation activity of MeIQx in rats.

Characterization of new metabolites from in vivo biotransformation of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline in mouse by mass spectrometry.

In studying the metabolic pathways underlying the mechanism of carcinogenesis of the heterocyclic amine of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), we recently found a new metabolite which gave an [M + H](+) ion of m/z 217 when subjected to electrospray ionization (ESI) in positive-ion mode. Following i.p. injection of this metabolite of m/z 217 (designated as m/z 217) to beta-naphthoflavone-treated mice, 57% of the total radioactivity was recovered in a 24-h mouse urine sample. HPLC separation followed by MS analysis indicates that the urine sample contained m/z 217 (36 +/- 3% of total recovered radioactivity) and two other peaks that gave rise to the [M + H](+) ions of m/z 393 (31 +/- 4%, designated as m/z 393) and m/z 233 (14 +/- 1%, designated as m/z 233). Beta-glucuronidase treatment of m/z 393 resulted in a radioactive peak corresponding to m/z 217. ESI in combination with various mass spectrometry techniques, including multiple-stage mass spectrometry, exact mass measurements and H/D exchange followed by tandem mass spectrometry, was used for structural characterization. The urinary metabolites of m/z 217, 393 and 233 were identified as 1,2-dihydro-2-amino-5-hydroxy-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline, 1,2-dihydro-2-amino-5-O-glucuronide-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline and 1,2-dihydro-2-amino-5,7-dihydroxy-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline, respectively. Our results demonstrated that m/z 217 is biotransformed in vivo to m/z 393 by O-glucuronidation and to m/z 233 by oxidation. The observation of these more polar metabolites relative to IQ suggests that they may arise from a previously undescribed detoxification pathway.

Hepatic metabolism of contaminants in the terapontid fish, yellowtail trumpeter (Amniataba caudavittata Richardson).

The yellowtail trumpeter (Amniataba caudavittata) is an estuarine-dependent omnivorous fish found in the Swan-Canning Estuary, Western Australia. Thirty five fish were injected with either the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), the synthetic flavenoid beta-naphthoflavone (BNF), or used as controls. The fish were then sampled at 3 and 7 days postinjection. Induction of the enzyme ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity was nonsignificant while ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase (ECOD) activity induction differed amongst treatments. A high interindividual variability in the EROD activity was observed. The measurement of sorbitol dehydrogenase in the serum (s-SDH) was elevated (BNF 2.2 times and B[a]P 3.2 times the control fish) demonstrating that liver cell damage had occurred. Increases in biliary metabolites of both B[a]P-type and pyrene-type (19 times and 3.4 times the controls respectively) indicated that detoxification of pyrene-type compounds had taken place. Fish of the Terapontidae family, such as the yellowtail trumpeter, were found to be suitable for biomonitoring the health of the Swan-Canning Estuary. A combination of ECOD activity, s-SDH, and the measurement of biliary metabolites represents a suitable suite of biomarkers for environmental monitoring of the sublethal effects of PAH pollution in these fish.

Vitellogenin, zona radiata protein, cathepsin D and heat shock protein 70 as biomarkers of exposure to xenobiotics.

The antagonistic and/or synergistic effects of different chemical compounds were examined in the marine teleost, Gobius niger, by testing a series of biomarkers involved in fish reproduction. Among the biomarkers analysed, vitellogenin (VTG) and zona radiata proteins (ZRP) are key molecules involved in reproduction, widely used to detect the presence of pollutants in the marine environment, while heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and cathepsin D (CATD) have recently been introduced as bioindicators of endocrine disruption. The detection of VTG and ZRP in the plasma of wild male specimens is universally accepted as an early warning signal of environmental pollution. The evaluation of VTG, ZRP and CATD expression demonstrated the oestrogenic effect of nonylphenol on both male and female fish; on the contrary beta-naphthoflavone behaves mainly as an anti-oestrogen although, when co-injected with compounds with oestrogenic activity, it enhances ZRP gene expression. Regarding the chaperone, all treatments stressed the fish, inducing an increase in HSP70 gene transcription. The results obtained underlined the importance of testing the effects of compound mixtures: fish in the wild are subjected to a blend of chemicals and the effects observed derive from the synergic or antagonistic interactions of these compounds.

Strong synergistic induction of CYP1A1 expression by andrographolide plus typical CYP1A inducers in mouse hepatocytes.

The effects of andrographolide, the major diterpenoid constituent of Andrographis paniculata, on the expression of cytochrome P450 superfamily 1 members, including CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP1B1, as well as on aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) expression in primary cultures of mouse hepatocytes were investigated in comparison with the effects of typical CYP1A inducers, including benz[a]anthracene, beta-naphthoflavone, and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Andrographolide significantly induced the expression of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 mRNAs in a concentration-dependent manner, as did the typical CYP1A inducers, but did not induce that of CYP1B1 or AhR. Interestingly, andrographolide plus the typical CYP1A inducers synergistically induced CYP1A1 expression, and the synergism was blocked by an AhR antagonist, resveratrol. The CYP1A1 enzyme activity showed a similar pattern of induction. This is the first report that shows that andrographolide has a potency to induce CYP1A1 enzyme and indicates that andrographolide could be a very useful compound for investigating the regulatory mechanism of the CYP1A1 induction pathway. In addition, our findings suggest preparing advice for rational administration of A. paniculata, according to its ability to induce CYP1A1 expression.

The impact of glucuronidation on the bioactivation and DNA adduction of the cooked-food carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine in vivo.

UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) catalyze the glucuronidation of many different chemicals. Glucuronidation is especially important for detoxifying reactive intermediates from metabolic reactions, which otherwise can be biotransformed into highly reactive cytotoxic or carcinogenic species. Detoxification of certain food-borne-carcinogenic heterocyclic amines (HAs) is highly dependent on UGT1A-mediated glucuronidation. 2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), the most mass abundant carcinogenic HA found in well-done cooked meat, is extensively glucuronidated by UGT1A proteins. In humans, CYP1A2 catalyzed N-hydroxylation and subsequent UGT1A-mediated glucuronidation is a dominant pathway in the metabolism of PhIP. Therefore, changes in glucuronidation rates could significantly alter PhIP metabolism. To determine the importance of UGT1A-mediated glucuronidation in the biotransformation of PhIP, hepatic UGT1A deficient Gunn and UGT1A proficient Wistar rats were exposed to a 100 microg/kg oral dose of [(14)C]PhIP. Urine was collected over 24 h and the PhIP urinary metabolite profiles were compared between the two strains. After the 24 h exposure, livers and colons were removed and analyzed for DNA adduct formation by accelerator mass spectrometry. Wistar rats produced several PhIP and N-hydroxy-PhIP glucuronides that accounted for approximately 25% of the total amount of recovered urinary metabolites. In the Gunn rats, PhIP and N-hydroxy-PhIP glucuronides were reduced by 68-92%, compared with the Wistar rats. PhIP-DNA adduct analysis from the Gunn rats revealed a correlation between reduced urinary PhIP and N-hydroxy-PhIP glucuronide levels and increased hepatic DNA adducts, compared with the Wistar rats. In the colon, DNA adduct levels were lower in the Gunn rats compared with the Wistar rats, suggesting deficient hepatic UGT1A activity provides protection against DNA adduct formation in peripheral tissue. Due to differences in PhIP metabolism between humans and rodents, extrapolation of these results to the human situation must be done with caution. These results indicate that UGT1A-mediated glucuronidation of PhIP and N-hydroxy-PhIP is an important pathway for PhIP detoxification, and demonstrate the importance of tissue-specific metabolism. Tissues with reduced UGT1A activity can have a higher rate of PhIP activation and be more inclined to form DNA adducts compared with tissues with normal UGT1A activity.

Suppression of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced mammary carcinogenesis by pre-initiation treatment of rats with beta-naphthoflavone coincides with decreased levels of the carcinogen-derived DNA adducts in the mammary gland.

BACKGROUND: Mechanisms underlying prevention by beta-naphthoflavone (beta-NF) of mammary carcinogenesis initiated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) in the rat were elucidated. METHODS AND RESULTS: Treatment of female Sprague-Dawley rats with beta-NF at 40 mg/kg b.wt. for 4 days by oral gavage in corn oil before a single oral dose of DMBA (112 mg/kg b.wt.) suppressed mammary gland carcinogenesis as shown by an increase in the median latent period from 10 to 24 weeks and a 60% decrease in the multiplicity of mammary adenocarcinomas. In contrast, a 20-day treatment with beta-NF starting 3 weeks after DMBA had no significant effects on mammary tumorigenesis. The activities of phase I and phase II enzymes were examined in the liver and mammary gland 24 h after treatment of rats with beta-NF, DMBA, or beta-NF followed by DMBA as in the first bioassay. Treatment with either beta-NF or DMBA increased the hepatic activities of cytochrome P450 (CYP)1A1, 1A2, and 2B1/2, and glutathione S-transferase, and the mammary activity of CYP1A1. The activity of mammary CYP2B1/2 induced by DMBA was decreased by beta-NF. In the liver, the increase of UDP-glucuronosyl transferase (GT) activity in rats treated with beta-NF and DMBA was 2.3-fold greater than in rats treated with DMBA alone. Thus, treatment with beta-NF likely increased the rate of glucuronidation of DMBA dihydrodiols leading to carcinogen detoxification. The levels of the DMBA adducts determined by 32P-postlabeling of the mammary gland DNA were decreased in the beta-NF-pretreated rats. CONCLUSION: The beta-NF-induced increase in the hepatic UDP-GT activity and decrease in the mammary DNA-DMBA adducts occurred under the same treatment regimen that led to suppression of DMBA-induced mammary carcinogenesis.

Roles of human CYP2A6 and 2B6 and rat CYP2C11 and 2B1 in the 10-hydroxylation of (-)-verbenone by liver microsomes.

(-)-Verbenone, a monoterpene bicyclic ketone, is a component of the essential oil from rosemary species such as Rosmarinus officinalis L., Verbena triphylla, and Eucalyptus globulus and is used for an herb tea, a spice, and a perfume. In this study, (-)-verbenone was found to be converted to 10-hydroxyverbenone by rat and human liver microsomal cytochrome p450 (p450) enzymes. The product formation was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection at 251 nm. There was a good correlation between activities of coumarin 7-hydroxylation and (-)-verbenone 10-hydroxylation catalyzed by liver microsomes of 16 human samples, indicating that CYP2A6 is a principal enzyme in (-)-verbenone 10-hydroxylation in humans. Human recombinant CYP2A6 and CYP2B6 catalyzed (-)verbenone 10-hydroxylation at Vmax values of 15 and 21 nmol/min/nmol p450 with apparent Km values of 16 and 91 microM, respectively. In contrast, rat CYP2A1 and 2A2 did not catalyze (-)-verbenone 10-hydroxylation at all, suggesting that there were species-related differences in the catalytic properties of human and rat CYP2A enzymes in the metabolism of (-)-verbenone. In the rat, recombinant CYP2C11, CYP2B1, and CYP3A2 catalyzed (-)-verbenone 10-hydroxylation with Vmax and Km ratios (ml/min/nmol p450) of 0.73, 0.20, and 0.03, respectively. Male-specific CYP2C11 was a major enzyme in (-)-verbenone 10-hydroxylation by untreated rat livers, and CYP2B1 catalyzed this reaction in liver microsomes of phenobarbital-treated rats. Rat CYP2C12, a female-specific enzyme, did not catalyze (-)verbenone 10-hydroxylation. These results suggest that human CYP2A6 and rat CYP2C11 are the major catalysts in the metabolism of (-)-verbenone by liver microsomes and that there are species-related differences in human and rat CYP2A enzymes and sex-related differences in male and female rats in the metabolism of (-)-verbenone.

Histocytological study on the possible mechanism of acetaminophen cataractogenesis in mouse eye.

Ocular toxicity of acetaminophen was investigated in cytochrome P450 inducer-responsive and nonresponsive strains of mice by light and electron microscopy. Acetaminophen injected into C57BL6 mice (responsive strain) that had been pretreated with beta-naphthoflavone produced cataract. The drug did not induce cataract in C57BL6 mice without the pretreatment or in DBA2 mice (nonresponsive strain) similarly pretreated with beta-naphthoflavone. Therefore, induction of cytochrome P450 enzymes that metabolically activate acetaminophen is essential for cataractogenesis. Following acetaminophen injection, tissue damage became noticeable first in the ciliary epithelium and then spread to the iris, corneal endothelium, and lens. The neural retina, retinal pigmented epithelium, and choroid remained unaffected. A close examination of tissues revealed that mitochondria are the primary target of acetaminophen cytotoxicity in ocular tissues affected. The nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and other subcellular structures appeared normal. The course of propagation of tissue damage and the almost exclusive damage to mitochondria suggest that the cytotoxic metabolite of acetaminophen is secreted with the aqueous humor by the ciliary epithelium and transported to the lens and that inhibition of mitochondrial energy metabolism, together with other effects of the metabolite, contributes to acetaminophen-induced cataract.