Diroximel fumarate acts through Nrf2 to attenuate methylglyoxal-induced nociception in mice and decreases ISR activation in DRG neurons.

ABSTRACT

Diabetic neuropathic pain is associated with elevated plasma levels of methylglyoxal (MGO). MGO is a metabolite of glycolysis that causes mechanical hypersensitivity in mice by inducing the integrated stress response (ISR), which is characterized by phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (p-eIF2α). Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor that regulates the expression of antioxidant proteins that neutralize MGO. We hypothesized that activating Nrf2 using diroximel fumarate (DRF) would alleviate MGO-induced pain hypersensitivity. We pretreated male and female C57BL/6 mice daily with oral DRF prior to intraplantar injection of MGO (20 ng). DRF (100 mg/kg) treated animals were protected from developing MGO-induced mechanical and cold hypersensitivity. Using Nrf2 knockout mice we demonstrate that Nrf2 is necessary for the anti-nociceptive effects of DRF. In cultured mouse and human dorsal root ganglion (DRG) sensory neurons, we found that MGO induced elevated levels of p-eIF2α. Co-treatment of MGO (1 µM) with monomethyl fumarate (MMF, 10, 20, 50 µM), the active metabolite of DRF, reduced p-eIF2α levels and prevented aberrant neurite outgrowth in human DRG neurons. Our data show that targeting the Nrf2 antioxidant system with DRF is a strategy to potentially alleviate pain associated with elevated MGO levels.